Unit 4: 1800-1848
Outline
General Timelines
Timeline #1: Jeffersonian Era & Pre-War of 1812
Timeline #2: War of 1812
Timeline #3: Post-War of 1812 Political Developments
Timeline #4: Market Revolution
Timeline #5: The Cotton Kingdom
Timeline #6: 19th Century Reform Movements
General Maps
Map # 1: US during War of 1812
Map # 2: Post-War Political Developments
Map # 3: The Market Revolution
Map # 4: The Cotton Kingdom
Map # 5: 19th Century Reform Movements
Course Content
Developments in Jefferson's Presidency:
Jefferson's Developments as President
Achievements by Jefferson
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Jefferson's overall vision for America was an agrarian society instead of an industrial cities w/ big cities
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Jefferson was a very smart & shrewd politician
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Easily won reelection in 1804 against Charles C Pinckney, increased Republican majorities in Congress
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Jefferson cut national debts by half
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Removed internal taxes, only imposed taxes on westward land & imports
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Jefferson reduced navy size, which cut gov spending
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Believed a navy would undermine his agrarian vision for America
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Established West Point in 1802 as a reduced navy would require a large army
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Won a conflict with North African states, causing him to pay less in tariffs
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All ships passing through Mediterranean had to pay tariffs to North African Kingdoms
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Jefferson built up his navy for war against Tripoli (one of the kingdoms) and won, so he didn't have to pay that tax ever again
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Marbury v Madison & Federalist Majority in Court
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Jefferson sought to maintain a Republican majority in the Supreme Court
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Sought to repeal Adams's "midnight appointments"
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Marbury v Madison court case challenged Congress's policies, establishing Judicial Review
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John Adams appointed Marbury as justice, but his commission letter was delivered when Adams left office
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James Madison (Jefferson's secretary of state) protested Marbury's appointment as it was late
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Court got involved, John Marshall (chief justice) said that the appointment was invalid
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This was known as Judicial Review, the idea that Court can nullify unconstitutional acts passed by Congress & executive branches
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Through Judicial Review, John Marshall established the concept of the Supreme Court's relationship to executive & legislative branches
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Later, Jefferson sought to impeach justice Samuel Chase, a far-right Federalist in court
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Congress impeached him, but less than 2/3 of Senate voted in favor, so the case was closed
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Set the precedent that impeachments can only be used in case of crimes, not for routine purposes
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Jefferson had to deal with a Federalist majority in Court, which supported extreme policies that he hated
Rise of American Culture
Education
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Education was limited and mostly for white males
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Religious education was common in south
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Secular education was common in north
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Mostly were private schools, only rich could afford
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Poor people went to inferior schools
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Everyone else (not white males) had limited opportunities
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Women often went to primary schools but not universities as they didn't need a job
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Believed they needed to learn to teach republican values to their kids
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Indians received little education
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Some missionary schools opened for Indians
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Whites sought to "civilize" the Indians
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Slaves & free blacks had barely any education
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If slaves went to school, they'd learn about their terrible condition & learn to rebel
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Free blacks in the north sometimes went to segregated inferior schools
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Universities were rare, really expensive
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Medical knowledge was almost nonexistant
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UPenn opened first medical school, taught people about germs & anatomy using cadavers
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Benjamin Rush believed that bleeding & purging would cure people (it failed)
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Number of midwives decreased
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Culture & Religion
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Americans sought to develop their own culture distinct from Britain
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Sought to promote patriotic education in schools
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Noah Webster created an American Dictionary w/ different spellings from Britain
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honour became honor, etc.
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American authors sought to create literature that represented American culture & style
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Many wrote novels, much different from the British idea of poetry
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As republican ideals of liberty spread, people started to separate from religion
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Church attendance was significantly decreased
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John Murray founded the Universalist church in 1779, rejected the idea of predestination
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Believed anyone can use reason and faith to achieve salvation
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Unitarian church was very similar to this
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People believed in rational religion instead of formal church gatherings
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This decline in religion caused 2nd Great Awakening
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Westward Expansion & Exploration
Louisiana Purchase
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Since 1800, Napoleon (French emperor) sought to regain land in the New World
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Regained Louisiana Territory from Spain in Secret Treaty, Treaty of San Ildefonso (1800)
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French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) declared independence, Napoleon sought to regain it
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Jefferson found out about French regain of Louisiana
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Pinckney's Treaty w/ Spain authorized Americans to use Port of New Orleans
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Now under French control, that wasn't the case
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American merchants complained that they lost their rights to Port of New Orleans
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If Jefferson ignores them, he'd lose popularity
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If Jefferson questions French authority there, he'd risk having a war with France
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Jefferson's final idea was just to buy the Port of New Orleans so American merchants could dock there
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Sent Robert R. Livingston to France to sign peace settlement to end Quasi War in 1800
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Sent James Monroe to France to assist him & petition to purchase Port of New Orleans
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Napoleon offered the entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million, which they agreed to
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Napoleon had already failed his ambitions in the New World, so he sold it to raise revenue (1803)
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Louisiana territory was organized into districts that could petition statehood at a certain population
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Just like Northwest Territory
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Lewis & Clark's Expedition
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Jefferson sought to expand westward to Pacific Ocean
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Hired Meriwether Lewis & William Clark to lead a westward expedition
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In Spring 1804, Lewis & Clark (along w/ some others) traveled westward from St. Louis
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Shoshone Indian woman Sacajawea helped guide them across the Rocky Mtns
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Reached Pacific Coast in 1805, returned to St. Louis in 1806 w/ lots of geographical knowledge
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Jefferson also dispatched Zebulon Pike to explore the upper Mississippi Valley
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Pike started in 1805, reached Colorado in 1806 & discovered a tall mountain (now called Pikes Peak)
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Returned & told that the land to the west is uninhabitable & like a desert
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Burr Conspiracy
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Many Federalists in New England hated westward expansion
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A group known as "Essex Junto" sought to secede from the US
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Needed support from NY & NJ as their economies are more powerful & can help the new nation
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Alexander Hamilton, leading Federalist of NY, refused the proposal
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The Federalists had one last chance to make their case
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Aaron Burr (Jefferson's first VP) was running against Hamilton for New York governor
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If Burr was elected, Burr would secede from the union w/ the New England Federalists
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Burr lost the election & challenged Hamilton to a duel
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Hamilton didn't want to be a coward, so he agreed to it
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Burr beat Hamilton in the duel, causing Hamilton to die the next day
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Burr fled to the west to escape prosecution for murder
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Allied w/ James Wilkinson, governor of Louisiana Territory, to create a state in Southwest US, separate from the US
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Jefferson hated Burr's goal but believed everything he sought to do
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Burr led a group of armed men into Ohio River
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Wilkinson told Jefferson that Burr would attack New Orleans
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Jefferson had Burr jailed & sent to trial
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Burr was acquitted as there was no evidence that he'd actually attack New Orleans
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This is known as Burr Conspiracy
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War of 1812:
Causes of the War of 1812
Conflict with Britain at Sea
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During French Revolution, Napoleon led France through a war w/ rest of Europe
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Britain defeated France at Battle of Trafalgar (1805)
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France issued Continental System, a law preventing Britain from trading w/ continental Europe
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Britain responded & issued "Orders in Council," blockading France from trade w/ continental Europe & Britain
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US couldn't remain neutral in France-Britain conflict
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Britain would attack US for trading w/ France
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France would attack US for trading w/ Britain
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Britain later instituted the policy of "impressment," harming the US
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British would force American sailors to serve in the British navy
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This idea was called "impressment"
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Many of these impressed sailors would defect back onto American ships when they get the chance
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Britain thus reserved the right to search any American ship for defected British soldiers
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In 1807, James Barron commanded Chesapeake ship of the US
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British ship Leopard arrived, forced Barron to let them search his ship
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Barron refused, so British opened fire, so Barron surrendered
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British dragged 4 men off Barron's ship
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Known as the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (1807)
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James Monroe was sent as diplomat to Britain
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Britain compensated the US for the incident
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US's Trade Embargo
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Congress enacted The Embargo Act of 1807
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Prevented US ships from trading in any foreign port
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Many people evaded this law, especially Federalists
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This idea of placing an embargo was called "peaceable coercion"
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In 1809, as the Embargo of 1807 was hurting the economy, Congress enacted Non-Intercourse Act
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Allowed US ships to travel anywhere except Britain & France
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In 1810, Congress signed Macon's Bill No. 2, allowing trade w/ France & Britain if they repeal their restrictions on American shipping
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France agreed to it
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Britain agreed much later, and the US sought war with Britain until they'd repeal their restrictions
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This is the main cause of War of 1812
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The Indian Opposition to the US
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William Henry Harrison was congressional delegate from NW territory & promoted westward expansion
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Passed Harrison Land Law of 1800, making it easier for whites to acquire land in the west
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Jefferson supported Harrison & extracted many treaties from the Indians for land in the Midwest
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Jefferson offered the Indians to assimilate into white society or move west of the Mississippi River
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British supplied the Indians in the west w/ arms
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After Chesapeake-Leopard Incident (1807), anti-British feeling spread throughout US
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British thought the US would invade Canada, so the British mobilized resources in Canada
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Britain also supplied arms to the Indians in the US against the Americans (to help the British)
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Allowed the Indians to somewhat resist white encroachment in the west
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2 Indians emerged as leaders, unifying the Indians
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Tenskwatawa ("the prophet") was a religious leader, promoting an anti-white feeling among the Indians
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Unified the Indians through his religious ideas
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His home base (Prophetstown) became a sacred place
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Tecumseh unified the Indians militarily & formed armies to attack white settlements
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Once, William Henry Harrison burned down Prophetstown in Battle of Tippecanoe (1811)
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Still, Tecumseh continued to mobilize his army and raid white settlements
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Desire to Conquer Florida & Start of War
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Americans had long desired to take over Florida
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Many Indians in Florida launched raids into Georgia
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Many slaves in Georgia escaped to Florida
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Florida's location was ideal
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In 1810, Americans took over a Spanish Fort at Baton Rouge (present-day Louisiana)
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James Madison (current president) agreed with them to annex the strip of land from Louisiana to Florida
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Believed war with Britain was a pretext to annex that land
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Because of all of these causes (mostly British threats to American shipping), Americans sought war w/ Britain
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In 1810 elections, many elected representatives supported war
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Henry Clay became Speaker of the House & promoted a vision for war
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John Calhoun was head of Committee of Foreign Affairs & also supported war
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Clay & Calhoun had important roles later in American History
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Eventually, in June 1812, James Madison approved war w/ Britain, starting the War of 1812
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In addition to annexing Florida, US wanted to annex Canada
Battles in the War of 1812
American Battles with the Indians
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In first phase of the war, Britain was preoccupied with Napoleonic Wars in Europe
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Thus, war was mostly between US and the Indians
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Many Indians were brought to Canada by the British, and the British in Canada supplied them w/ weapons
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In Jul 1812, Gen. William Hull invaded Canada through Detroit. He failed & retreated back to Detroit in Aug 1812
In Apr 1813, Gen. Zebulon Pike burned city of York (present-day Toronto). US won, but Pike was killed
In Sept 1813, Com. Oliver Hazard Perry defeated British navy at Battle of Lake Erie (Put-in Bay)
In Mar 1814, Andrew Jackson defeated Creek Indians in Florida (Tecumseh's allies). He seized control of some parts of Florida (Battle of Horseshoe Bend)
In Oct 1813, Gen. William Henry Harrison led army via Thames River in Canada. Killed Tecumseh at Battle of Thames
American Battles with the British
In Apr 1814, Napoleon is defeated in France, exiles in Elba. Thus, Britain can focus more on this war instead of Napoleonic Wars
In Aug 1814, British troops defeat an American militia at Bladensburg (near Washington DC)
The same day as Battle of Bladensburg, British troops advance to Washington DC, burn many buildings including White House
In Jan 1815, US defeats British at Battle of New Orleans & kills British Commander Edward Pakenham. This ended the war
In Sept 1814, British attack Fort McHenry (Baltimore). US clogs the harbor w/ sunken ships, so British attack from a distance. US wins
Americans successfully defended British force at Battle of Plattsburgh (Sept 1814)
Fun Fact: Creation of the Star Spangled Banner
During the Battle of Fort McHenry, Francis Scott Key (American lawyer) was aboard one of the British ships. From the ship, he saw that the fort was very destroyed, but the flag was still waving. He wrote a poem about the flag called "Star Spangled Banner" on the back of an envelope. This later became the national anthem in 1931.
End of the War of 1812
Hartford Convention
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During War of 1812, Federalists in New England opposed the war effort
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Hated the Republican government of the US
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Celebrated British victories
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New England (which was majority Federalist) sought to secede from the Union
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In Dec 1814, Federalist delegates from New England met at Hartford (Hartford Convention)
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Discussed grievances to the Republican gov
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Unfortunately, the Federalists who supported secession were outnumbered by a more moderate majority that opposed secession
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Made a list of 7 Constitutional amendments to protect New England from influence from the rest of the US
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However, after Victory at New Orleans (Jan 1815), many started to despise the Federalists (mostly b/c they supported the British)
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Plans for secession were canceled
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Largely caused Federalist party to disappear
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Peace Settlement
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Treaty of Ghent (1814) restored pre-war boundaries & agreements
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US would give up demands to annex Canada
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US would give the Northwest land to the Indians
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This was not actually implemented
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Discussed & approved in Dec 1814, officially ratified in Feb 1815
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A treaty in 1815 allowed the US to trade freely w/ Britain without any restrictions
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Rush-Bagot Treaty (1817) told US & Britain to disarm themselves near US-Canada border at Great Lakes
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Pre-Jackson Era:
Westward Expansion
Migration to the West
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Growing pressure in the East caused migration to the west
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More immigration from Europe to East created a population pressure
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The soil (in farms) was exhausted of its nutrients
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To accommodate more slaves, more land was needed
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Natives were the main hindrance to westward migration, but they were easier to control
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War of 1812 largely eliminated them
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US built forts in the region to protect the whites from the natives
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US initiated "factor system," where US officials give resources to natives at a low cost
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Allowed US officials to control natives
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Many migrated on newly-built steamboats/flatboats
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To scout western land, US War Dept. dispatched Stephen Long
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Led 19 soldiers, tried to find source of Red River (but failed to do so)
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Backed Zebulon Pike's claim that the West is like a desert
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Economy in the West
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In the Southern region, cotton was really common
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Arkansas / Mississippi Region was known as "black belt" due to its dark nutritious soil
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Perfect for growing cotton
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Known as "Cotton Kingdom"
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Many wealthy landowners migrated to the west, sometimes took their slaves with them
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In the West, fur-trapping was really common
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When Mexico won independence from Spain in 1821, it opened up trade w/ US
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Before, Indians would trap fur & trade w/ whites, but now, Whites trapped fur themselves
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Many companies trapped fur in the west region
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John Jacob Astor founded Astor's American Fur Company in Oregon
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Sold it to the British
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Moved to the Rockies to trap fur there
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Andrew Henry & William Ashley founded Rocky Mtn Fur Company (1822)
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Hired many employees to trap fur, these ppl depended on wages (like factory system)
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Most fur-trappers lived harmoniously w/ Mexicans and Indians
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Jedediah Smith entered CA by land & started fur-trapping there, but he was killed by Mexicans
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"Era of Good Feelings"
Start of the "Era of Good Feelings"
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The Period from ~1815-1825
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After War of 1812, increased American nationalism
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Henry Clay's American System
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More transportation, national identity, etc.
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Sometimes described as reign of James Monroe
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When James Monroe was elected in 1816, he led a goodwill tour throughout the country
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His victory caused Federalists to largely disappear
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Believed his presidency was "era of good feelings"
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Also known as end of the First Party System
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Federalists ceased to exist
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Republicans also lost some unity
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Monroe was last president of Virginia Dynasty
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Jefferson, Madison, Monroe were all from VA
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The American System
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After War of 1812, more feelings of nationalism spread among Americans
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In 1815, James Madison (president) promoted the idea of the "American System"
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Wanted a national bank
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Tariffs on imports to protect domestic industry
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Wanted roads & canals to make transportation easier throughout US
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Congress made charter for 2nd National Bank in 1816
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Set to expire in 1836
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Previously, 1st National Bank expired in 1811, creating many regional banks
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These issued paper money, which wasn't backed by gold/silver, causing fluctuation in prices
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New National Bank had more money & was backed by gold/silver bullion
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Congress raised tariffs on imports to protect domestic industry
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American textile industry grew due to factories, but British tried to sell their own textiles in US
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The tariff reduced the amount of British goods sold here
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Many roads & canals were also built throughout east coast to ease transportation
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PA State gov sponsored a road from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh
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Many steamboats traveled down Ohio & Mississippi Rivers
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Still, roads were bad and caused slow travel
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Difficult for goods to arrive in time, causing price fluctuation throughout US
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Western roads were poorly built
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American System was largely supported by Speaker of the House Henry Clay
Annexation of Florida
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John Quincy Adams was Monroe's Secretary of State
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Adams sought to annex Florida
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Had conquered Western FL during War of 1812, but that claim was disputed
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Wanted actual claim to the entire FL
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During Seminole War (1816-1858), Seminole Indians launched raids across the FL border into US territory
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John Calhoun (Secretary of War) encouraged Andrew Jackson (military general) to launch raids into Florida
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Jackson took over 2 Spanish forts
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Spanish realized they couldn't defend FL from the US
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Realized that US had the right to launch raids into FL to prevent threats like the Seminoles
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Spanish foreign minister Luis de Onis signed Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 w/ John Q Adams
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US gained Florida, US would give up its claims to Texas
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Panic of 1819
During & After War of 1812, industry boomed, farmers sold at higher prices due to more wartime demand. Speculators bought land in the west
In 1819, economic increase slowed, speculators lost some money, national bank tightened its loans to speculators
Speculators couldn't pay the loans, and farmers lost a lot of money, causing financial panic from 1819 to mid 1820s
The Missouri Compromise
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Missouri applied for statehood in 1819
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Already had slavery well-established there
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There were 11 free & 11 slave states, so Missouri's admission would threaten the balance
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NY Congress rep James Tallmadge Jr. believed MO should gradually emancipate its slaves
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Provoked lots of controversy
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Maine also applied for statehood as a free state
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Henry Clay (speaker of the House) believed ME should me admitted as free, MO as slave state
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Both states would be admitted at the same time, maintaining free/slave balance
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Known as Missouri Compromise
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Prevented the US from having conflict between north & south
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Senator Jesse B Thomas proposed Thomas Amendment
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All lands north of southern MO boundary in Louisiana Territory should be free
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Congress soon adopted this
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John Marshall's Court Decisions
Fletcher v Peck
Land grants cannot be repealed. First time he ruled a state law unconstitutional.
Dartmouth College v Woodward
Dartmouth's land grant cannot be repealed.
Cohens v Virginia
Supreme Court has the power to review all state court decisions.
McCulloch v Maryland
Supreme Court has the power to establish & regulate a national bank. States cannot tax the banks.
Gibbons v Ogden
Supreme Court has the power to regulate interstate commerce.
Their Effects
Overall promoted more power of the national government over the individual states.
Johnson v McIntosh
Only national gov can buy Indian lands. Indians cannot sell their land to individuals.
Worcester v Georgia
Only national gov can regulate access to Indian territories. States cannot do that.
Their Effects to the Indians
Established Indians as subordinate to national gov but unregulated by states. Meant to protect them from Westward Expansion.
Monroe Doctrine
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From 1810-1822, all Spanish Colonies in Central & South America got independence
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Spain was distracted from Napoleonic Wars
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These colonies claimed independence, drafted their own constitutions
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James Monroe was the first to recognize their independence
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John Q Adams (Secretary of State) drafted Monroe Doctrine (1823)
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One of most important documents in US foreign policy
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Established US as a dominant power in Western Hemisphere
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3 parts to the doctrine are listed below
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US would not interfere with European internal wars or with existing European colonies in the Americas
European powers cannot recolonize any nations in the Americas
European powers cannot interfere with the affairs of newly-independent American nations
Rise of Opposition to the Republicans
Election of 1824
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There were 4 Republican candidates
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John Quincy Adams (less popular, most support from Northeast)
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Andrew Jackson (popular war hero, support from all over the nation)
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William Crawford (Secretary of Treasury, most support from South
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Henry Clay (Speaker of the House, support from the West)
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In the end, Jackson had most electoral votes, Adams in 2nd, Crawford in 3rd, Clay in 4th
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No one had the majority, though
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Clay rivaled Jackson and supported Adams b/c Adams supported the "American System"
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B/c no one received the majority of electoral votes, the House decided the election
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According to 12th amendment, House chooses among top 3 candidates
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Clay (4th place) was eliminated
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As Speaker of the House, Clay supported Adams as Adams also believed in "American System"
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With this, majority of house supported Adams, and Adams became president
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Jackson hated this result, believed it to be a "corrupt bargain"
Presidency of John Quincy Adams
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John Q Adams believed in promoting US economic & diplomatic power, wanted US nationalism
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Negotiated annexation of Florida in 1819
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Wrote Monroe Doctrine (while he was secretary of state) to establish US diplomatic dominance
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Believed he could annex Cuba, Canada, parts of Mexico
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Made many internal improvements
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Supported Clay's "American System"
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Financed many roads, canals, etc.
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Wanted American economic dominance
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Wanted tariffs on imports to protect domestic industry
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Passed "tariff of abominations," a tax on some imported from Britain
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Merchants in Northeast previously complained about cheap price of imported English wool
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Merchants in the west & south complained about other cheap imported products
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Adams had to impose tariffs on other products as well
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Election of 1828
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This election had 2 candidates
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John Quincy Adams (incumbent)
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His followers were National Republicans
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Believed in strong economic nationalism
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Appealed to many remaining Federalists
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Andrew Jackson
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His followers were Democratic Republicans
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Basically the Modern Democratic Party
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Believed in widening of opportunity
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Sought to alleviate the wealth gap
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Appealed to lower classes & those who hated the "economic aristocracy"
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Was viewed as a "common man"
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Popular participation was really high in this election
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Lots of people were exposed to campaigns
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57% of eligible voters voted (2x from last election)
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In the end, Jackson easily won
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Adams had support from Northeast region
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Jackson had support from South & West
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Jacksonian Era:
Spread of Democracy in America
Jackson's Presidency & Expanding Democracy
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Jackson believed in giving all white males privileges
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Wanted to subjugate blacks & Indians
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Wanted all white males (whether or not they own property) to have right to vote
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There was more popular participation in voting as electors were more often chosen by the people
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Known as the president of the "common man"
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He was a commoner himself
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Believed in giving more power to the people
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Fired some officeholders for corruption
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Didn't want people in office for too long
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Initiated the Spoils System
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The political party in power gives government positions to its supporters
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There were still restrictions, though, to universal white male suffrage
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Blacks & women could never vote
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In casting their vote, people had to speak out loud to a moderator
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Made voting prone to intimidation
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Dorr Rebellion
Thomas W Dorr wanted RI to lift property requirement for voting. Dorr organized the "People's Party" in 1840, passed its own constitution w/ universal white male suffrage
Existing Rhode Island gov passed its own constitution. Thus, there were 2 govs in 1842. Real gov believed Dorrites to be rebels
Dorrites tried to capture the state arsenal, but they failed and surrendered
Tocqueville and Democracy in America
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Alex de Tocqueville was sent by France to study prisons in US
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Instead, Tocqueville noticed the spread of democracy and popular participation in the US
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Observed that both rich & poor can participate in government
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Unlike France where aristocrats dominate
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Noticed that there are limits to democracy in US
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Women & blacks had limited rights
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Wrote Democracy in America with his observations
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Became the basis for democracy in Europe
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Martin Van Buren & Rise of Political Parties
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Martin Van Buren believed in having opposing political parties
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Believed people should be attached to one political party
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Believed having opposing parties would make sure the ruler responds to the will of the people
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This idea first came to him when Van Buren led a dissent faction against NY Governor DeWitt Clinton
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Led a group of dissenters known as "Bucktails"
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Believed Clinton served for personal pleasure & ignored popular interests
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There were now 2 political parties in America
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Jacksonians were Democrats
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Anti-Jacksonians were Whigs
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Threats to National Unity
Peggy-Eaton Affair & Martin Van Buren's Ascendance
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Martin Van Buren was NY Governor from 1828-1829, then became Jackson's Secretary of State in 1829
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Became good friends with Jackson
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Jackson had a group of unofficial political allies known as the "kitchen cabinet"
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Van Buren was the head of this group
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Due to Peggy-Eaton Affair, John Calhoun's influence declined
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Peggy O'Neale was a tavern keeper in DC, and Jackson & John H Eaton would sometimes stay with her when they were Senators
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Eaton was unmarried & had an affair w/ O'Neale
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When O'Neale's husband died, she married Eaton
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Jackson made Eaton Secretary of War, so Peggy O'Neale (now called Mrs. Eaton) became a cabinet wife
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John Calhoun's wife refused to socially accept Mrs. Eaton into the cabinet wife social circle
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Van Buren accepted Mrs. Eaton's influence, so Van Buren became friends with Jackson
-
B/c Calhoun refused to accept Mrs. Eaton, Calhoun's influence declined
-
Jackson thus chose Van Buren to succeed him as presidential nomination instead of Calhoun
-
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Nullification Crisis
-
South Carolina hated the "tariff of abominations"
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Believed it slowed domestic industry & caused SC economy to stagnate
-
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John Calhoun (VP of Jackson) proposed the theory of nullification
-
States could declare any federal law null within the state if they don't like this
-
Jackson strongly opposed this & said it would threaten the unity of the nation
-
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In 1832, South Carolina declared the tariffs null
-
Jackson got mad & signed a bill to allow him to use force to enforce federal laws in the states
-
Henry Clay (newly-elected Senator) proposed a compromise: The Compromise Tariff of 1833
-
The tariffs would be gradually lowered so that it'd match the level of the Tariff of 1816 by the year 1842
-
This law was passed, and South Carolina repealed its nullification
-
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Calhoun got mad at Jackson & resigned in 1832
Webster-Hayne Debate
-
Debate over power of states vs national gov
-
Robert Y Hayne (Senator from SC) believed each state was sovereign & could nullify any federal law within the state
-
Daniel Webster (Senator from MA) believed national gov has more power & must preserve the Union of the states
-
Webster gave the famous speech "Second Reply to Hayne"
-
Said that the Union is inseperable
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Removal of the Indians
Black Hawk War (1832)
Sauk and Fox Indians in Illinois region opposed white settlement. A rival tribe had signed a treaty, ceding land to the whites, but these tribes disapproved it. They named Black Hawk as their leader
Whites easily defeated the Indians, forced them to retreat. They captured Black Hawk, sent him to DC to meet Jackson
"Civilized" Tribes of the South
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Unlike the north, the South actually had 5 tribes that built a stable society
-
Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw
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Cherokee's even had their own constitution (1827)
-
Had stable agrarian economies
-
Many southerners believed they should stay
-
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Congress passed Removal Act (1830), sending federal officials to negotiate treaties to move Indians west
-
Some weak tribes migrated in exchange for payments
-
Some stronger tribes resisted
-
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Before the Removal Act of 1830, Georgia had already attempted to remove the Cherokees
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Cherokees filed lawsuits, and in Cherokee Nation v Georgia (1831) and Worcester v Georgia (1832), court ruled that Cherokees must migrate
-
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Federal gov negotiated a treaty with a faction of the Cherokees
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Cherokees would get $5 million in exchange for a reservation west of Mississippi River
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This faction didn't even represent a majority of Cherokees, so most Cherokees refused to migrate
-
Jackson sent Gen. Winfield Scott to force the Cherokees to migrate
-
-
Trail of Tears
-
About 1000 Cherokees migrated to a small reservation in NC
-
The remaining Cherokees (& other tribes) had to migrate to "Indian Territory"
-
Present-day Oklahoma
-
This migration occurred in winter of 1838 for the Cherokees during which 1000 of them died
-
Other tribes migrated earlier than that
-
This migration is called "Trail of Tears"
-
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Whites believed this land to be the "Great American Desert"
-
Wanted the Indians to live in isolation
-
Believed they weren't making good use of the land & weren't civilized to be assimilated into US
-
There were forts in the reservation to keep Indians in and keep the whites out
-
The reservation was divided into small territories for each tribe
-
Indians were forced to live here, in an unfamiliar place w/ strange climate
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Seminole War (1835-1842)
In Treaty of Payne's Landing (1832), Seminoles agreed to migrate westward. However, a group of Seminoles under Chieftain Osceola refused to migrate, staged uprising in 1835
Federal troops fought the Seminoles, captured & killed Osceola, killed 1500 more Seminoles
Some Seminoles managed to survive. Federal gov abandoned the war in 1842. By then, most Seminoles were killed or forced to migrate, but some still remained
Bank War
Discontent Toward the Bank
-
Bank of the US was a really powerful institution
-
Instituted in 1816, set to expire in 1836
-
Led by Nicholas Biddle
-
Managed all the US's banks and money supply
-
Government had 1/5 stock in the bank
-
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2 factions hated the bank
-
"Soft money" faction hated that the bank controlled supply of paper money
-
"Hard money" faction hated that the bank issued paper money w/o backing it with gold/silver
-
Jackson supported the dissenters, hated that paper money caused him to decline in Financial Panic of 1797
-
-
Jackson mainly hated the bank as it was too powerful & favored the wealthy
-
Believed it supported Eastern business interests
-
Jackson was a Westerner who opposed this
-
-
Believed it could threaten his power & threaten the power of the "common man"
-
-
Biddle sought to gain support for the bank
-
Daniel Webster helped him & got Henry Clay to support him
-
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Biddle applied to renew the bank charter in 1832, so the future of the bank was important in 1832 election
-
1832 election was Andrew Jackson vs Henry Clay
-
Jackson opposed the bank, Clay supported it
-
-
Jackson won the election, so he allowed the bank's charter to expire w/o renewing it
-
End of the Bank
-
Jackson won re-election in 1832, but he had to wait until 1836 for bank to expire
-
He sought to weaken the bank before 1836
-
Wanted to remove all government funds from the bank & put it in state banks called "pet banks"
-
Imposed Roger B Taney as Secretary of Treasury to do this
-
-
Bank's financial resources were strained because of the loss of government funds
-
Biddle thus had to raise interest rates on loans to compensate for the lost funds
-
Biddle knew this would cause a recession, believed recession would convince gov to renew bank's charter
-
-
Eventually, people protested the Bank's high interest rates, so the bank failed to get renewed
-
-
The Bank expired in 1836, but this caused a small recession
Jackson's Reforms in Supreme Court
-
After winning Bank War, Jackson sought to maintain loyalty in the Supreme Court
-
Hated vigorous nationalism of Chief Justice John Marshall
-
When Marshall died (1835), Jackson put Roger B Taney (Secretary of Treasury) as Chief Justice
-
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Taney's court rulings promoted more widening of opportunity instead of nationalism
-
Charles River Bridge v Warren Bridge (1837)
-
Taney ruled that monopolies should be abolished and more people should get chances to conduct business in a certain area
-
-
Wanted widening opportunities for all instead of monopolies or aristocracies
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Post-Jackson Developments in Politics
Beliefs of Democrats
-
Supporters of Andrew Jackson
-
Believed in widening opportunity for white males
-
Opposed rapid industrial/commercial development as it hinders the widening of opportunity
-
Hated monopolies
-
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Drew support for poor farmers in Northeast as well as farmers in the South & West
-
Drew support from Irish & German Catholics who wanted a peaceful society
-
Beliefs of Whigs
-
Whigs were opponents of Andrew Jackson
-
Name "Whig" comes from the British party that opposed the king
-
-
Believed in rapid industrial development
-
Wanted to slow western expansion as it could affect the stability of US
-
Wanted concentrated manufacturing power
-
Drew support from Northeast Merchants as well as wealthy Southern farmers
-
Drew support from Protestant Evangelicals due to their emphasis on human progress
-
-
Gained support through the Anti-Masonry Movement
-
A freemason, William Morgan, was murdered for publishing a book exposing masonry secrets
-
It was believed that he was murdered by other Masons, which caused Anti-Mason protests
-
Many believed Jackson & Van Buren were Masons & started to oppose them, giving their support to Whigs
-
-
Didn't have one strong leader (like Jackson); Had 3 leaders instead
-
Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John Calhoun formed "Great Triumvirate"
-
Each candidate was popular in some ways but had one controversial element making them unpopular
-
Election of 1836
-
Democratic Candidate was Martin Van Buren
-
Whigs had 3 candidates, each with a strong regional appeal
-
Hugh Lawson White had support of South
-
Daniel Webster had support of North
-
William Henry Harrison had support of West
-
They chose 3 candidates as they thought it would prevent Van Buren from receiving majority of votes
-
In this case, House would choose President
-
-
-
In the end, Martin Van Buren won the majority
Martin Van Buren's Presidency & Panic of 1837
-
In 1836 (during Jackson's presidency), economy was at a high
-
Railroads & canals were at peak of activity
-
Money was in surplus, so banks were giving more loans & printing more money
-
People bought more land in the west
-
Government profited from land sales & tariff of abominations, so it was out of debt in 1835
-
-
Congress was unsure of what to do w/ Treasury surplus
-
Didn't want to lower Tariff of abominations to cause another crisis (like Nullification)
-
Congress passed Distribution Act of 1836
-
All extra money in Treasury would be given to each state
-
States didn't expect to pay these loans back
-
Would be used to fund canals, roads, internal development, causing an economic boom
-
-
-
Jackson hated the paper money received from land sales in the West, so he issued "specie circular" (1836)
-
Forced speculators to pay him in gold/silver coins
-
-
This "specie circular" policy produced Financial Panic in 1837
-
Occurred in first few months of Van Buren's presidency
-
Bread riots emerged, unemployment grew, railroad projects failed, crops failed, etc.
-
Europe also had a financial panic, so they withdrew their funds from US, worsening US's financial panic
-
-
Martin Van Buren did little to alleviate it
-
Borrowed more money to pay debts & only accepted payments in gold/silver
-
Made things worse
-
-
Opposed government intervention in economy
-
Had a few achievements: Established 10-hour working day
-
-
Van Buren proposed having an independent treasury system
-
Gov funds would be put in an "independent treasury" in DC and "subtreasuries" in other states
-
No private banks could give loans on behalf of gov
-
Proposed in 1837, finally passed in 1840
-
Election of 1840
-
In 1840 election, Whigs realized they needed only one candidate, not 3 (like 1836 election)
-
Chose William Henry Harrison, a popular war hero & national figure
-
John Tyler was his running mate
-
-
Democrats chose Martin Van Buren (incumbent)
-
They failed to choose his running mate, so they left that to the electors
-
-
In this election, the idea of campaigning became really popular
-
Candidates utilized the "penny press," a new way of printing newspapers, to campaign
-
Both candidates appealed to a broad audience through their campaigns
-
To appeal to a broad audience, Harrison presented himself as a normal person and lover of log cabins
-
For this reason, his campaign was known as the "log cabin campaign"
-
-
-
In the end, William Henry Harrison won
Failures of Harrison & Tyler
-
Unfortunately, William Henry Harrison died a month into his presidency due to pneumonia
-
John Tyler (VP) succeeded him
-
-
John Tyler had weak ties w/ the Whig party
-
Was a former Democrat who joined the Whigs as he hated Jackson's egalitarianism
-
Agreed to abolish Van Buren's "independent treasury" but didn't want to reestablish the Nat'l Bank
-
Vetoed many of Clay's internal improvements bills that other Whigs in Congress supported
-
-
Whigs later removed John Tyler from the party
-
All cabinet members resigned, Democrats took their place
-
John Calhoun replaced Daniel Webster as Secretary of State
-
Calhoun rejoined Democrats
-
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Tyler was part of a Whig faction that supported Democrats
-
Diplomatic Achievements of Whigs
-
US had a conflict with Britain in 1837 known as the Caroline Affair
-
Canadian rebels attacked British colonial authorities as they wanted independence
-
The Canadians chartered the American ship Caroline to deliver them supplies
-
British seized Caroline & burned it, killing one American on board
-
Americans blamed British officer Alexander McLeod for it
-
Daniel Webster (Secretary of State) wanted state courts to try McLeod in court
-
State courts acquitted McLeod as he was solely responding to official British orders
-
-
-
US & Canada also disagreed over the Maine boundary
-
Many US lumberjacks moved into the Aroostook river region (now part of Northern Maine)
-
US & British Canada fought a brief conflict called Aroostook War (1838-1839)
-
Daniel Webster (Sec. of State) negotiated the border w/ British Lord Ashburton in 1842
-
Signed Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842
-
-
-
Whigs also negotiated diplomacy with China
-
Britain fought Opium Wars w/ China to get trading rights, and US wanted the same rights
-
Whigs sent Caleb Cushing as a diplomat to China
-
Negotiated Treaty of Wanghia (1844)
-
-
Trade w/ China significantly increased
-
-
Whigs lost Presidency in 1844 & only won two more presidencies after that
Market Revolution:
Industrial & Communication Revolution
Origins of Industrial Revolution
-
Industrial Revolution began in Britain in late 1700s
-
Britain pioneered it due to high capital investment, natural resources (e.g. coal), and easy access to waterways (e.g. rivers)
-
Britain outlawed the export of industrial machinery to maintain a lead in industrialization
-
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However, some British immigrants to America brought knowledge of industrial machinery with them
-
Samuel Slater (an English immigrant) established first factory in the US in 1790
-
Built in Pawtucket, RI
-
Used water-power to power the mill
-
Produced yarn from cotton, which was then woven by rural families
-
-
Oliver Evans helped perfect the high-pressure steam engine
-
Used it to power the flour mill
-
-
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Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin
-
Automated the process of purifying raw cotton
-
Due to decline in tobacco production, slavery was declining
-
Invention of cotton gin increased demand for cotton, which revived the demand for slavery
-
-
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Eli Whitney also created idea of interchangeable parts
-
Thought that complicated objects (guns, clocks, etc.) could be made of multiple small parts
-
Different people could manufacture each individual part
-
One person can then put them all together in the end
-
-
Thus, it is easier to make objects in mass
-
Also, if an object breaks, you can replace the individual broken part
-
-
Helped increase gun supply during Quasi War w/ France (1798-1800)
-
Communications Revolution
-
America needed a good transportation network to transport raw materials to factories
-
Oliver Evans perfected the high-pressure steam engine, which was used to power riverboats
-
Robert Fulton designed the 1st steam-powered riverboat
-
Proved his model by launching the boat Clermont up the Hudson in 1807
-
-
Many canals were built to allow transportation via steamboats
-
-
American merchants became dominant figures in global shipping as Europe was at war
-
Many roads were built with turnpikes (known as Turnpike era)
-
Turnpikes were toll gates on the roads
-
Roads connected major cities & few went to countryside
-
Cost a lot to maintain it, so only places w/ high traffic could generate lots of revenue via tolls
-
-
-
Many railroads were also constructed, amounting to 30k miles by 1860
-
Often connected major cities but were still primitive & slow
-
-
Samuel Morse invented the telegraph in 1830s, and used Morse Code to communicate
-
Innovations in journalism & paper-printing enabled more newspapers to be circulated
-
Richard Hoe invented steam cylinder rotary press, which could print newspapers quickly & cheaply
-
Erie Canal
-
A 363-mile canal built from Lake Erie to Hudson River in Albany
-
Allowed for goods to travel throughout Upstate NY to NYC
-
Goods would then embark on ships at NYC to be sold in other cities
-
-
Allowed migration in upstate NY
-
Upstate NY had thriving wheat industry
-
Cities like Albany, Syracuse, Rochester, Buffalo became big
-
-
Influenced construction of other canals
-
Many states financed canals within their land
-
Many canals were built to connect major East Coast cities w/ Ohio & Mississippi Valleys
-
Effects of Industrialization
Westward Migration
-
During this time, over 4 million people migrated westward
-
Efficient transportation enabled their migrations
-
Often migrated in communities
-
6 new states were created from 1815-1821
-
-
American population growth enabled the westward migration
-
Improvements in public health, low child mortality, etc. contributed to growing population
-
-
Most migrants bought land from speculators on a long-term credit
-
Some Americans even migrated into lands ruled by foreign powers
-
Believed they had the right to as America was superior
-
-
Many slaves were forced to migrate westward
-
Some migrated with their owners
-
Others were sold to auctioneers & migrated in coffles to the west then sold there
-
Caused break in long-standing slave communities in the south & decreased hope for liberty
-
Growth of Cities
-
As factories grew and less people were needed for agricultural labor, cities grew
-
Cities at crossroads of major transportation networks grew in size
-
St. Louis, Cincinatti, Chicago, etc.
-
-
-
Still, US cities weren't as large as major European cities
-
NYC, Philadelphia, Baltimore, etc. had between 20-70k people, as large as secondary European cities
-
Cities had elegant houses, theaters, etc.
-
Changes in Agriculture & Growth of Cotton Kingdom
-
The South became known as the Cotton Kingdom
-
Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, making it easy to separate cotton fibers from its seeds
-
Prevented slavery from declining due to decreased tobacco demand as cotton production increased
-
After War of 1812, Indians ceded lots of land to the US , expanding US cotton plantations in the south
-
Many new states in the South were added to the Union (MS, LA, AR, AL)
-
This area in the south became known as the cotton kingdom for its expansive cotton production
-
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In the North, farmers became less self-sufficient & started selling & buying goods in the store
-
Cyrus McCormick invented the mechanical reaper, making it easier to harvest goods (such as wheat)
-
Many farmers grew wheat, and others produced dairy products or other crops
-
Life During Industrialization
Life in the Factories
-
A group of Boston investors called Boston Associates created first large-scale factory in US
-
Located in Waltham, MA
-
Created second one in Lowell, MA
-
Spun & wove cloth in one factory
-
Factories often used water power from nearby rivers to power the factories
-
-
The South opposed industrialization
-
It didn't have the demand for industrial goods
-
Slaveowners opposed industrialization
-
Industrialization was confined mostly to New England
-
-
Factory life was really harsh
-
Workers worked long hours w/ strict supervision & low pay
-
Worked on a strict hourly wage
-
Had to perform the same task repeatedly for hours
-
Many opposed this strict work schedule, so factory owners hired many poor people w/o better jobs
-
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Many early factories in MA hired young girls
-
Known as "Mill Girls"
-
Wanted extra money for themselves
-
Working in factories often violated their freedom & privacy
-
Immigration & Nativism
-
Many people migrated from Europe in search of job opportunities
-
In Europe, the Industrial Revolution disrupted centuries-old patterns of life
-
Peasants were thrown off their land
-
-
Trans-Atlantic steam boats allowed for immigration
-
-
Many Irish people came to escape Great Potato Famine (1845-1851)
-
Mostly impoverished, lacked industrial skills
-
Took jobs in canal-digging, railroad-building, and domestic service
-
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Many Germans also migrated, settled mostly in the Midwest
-
Many nativists hated the rising immigration
-
Especially hated the Irish as they were Catholic
-
Archbishop John Hughes of NYC sought to promote Catholicism
-
-
Believed immigrants aren't suitable for Republican ideals of freedom
-
Blamed immigrants for growing corruption & crime
-
Many nativists led anti-immigration riots
-
Nativists created the Native American Party in 1845
-
Promoted American supremacy & sought to ban immigrants from certain privileges
-
Became known as the "Know-nothings"
-
Had a code of secrecy called "I know nothing" for many restricted places, so that's how the name emerged
-
-
Party had some power in the northeast, but it declined in late 1850s
-
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Inequality of Wealth, Race, & Gender
-
Many people became rich due to market revolution
-
Wealth gap increased
-
People became rich due to hard work, not necessarily inherited from family
-
New opportunities in law, medicine, & advanced fields opened up for smart & wealthy people
-
-
Market society discriminated against blacks
-
Blacks were slaves in the south
-
In the North, free blacks lived in subordinate neighborhoods w/ dirty housing
-
Often couldn't get jobs as no whites customers would want to be served by them
-
Richard Allen created African Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia for blacks
-
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Women got more of a domestic job & had lower economic status
-
Were responsible for embodying values of beauty
-
Responsible for teaching republican values of liberty, equality, etc. to their children
-
Before the market revolution, some women wove cloth at home
-
Poor women worked as seamstresses or servants
-
Middle-class women stayed at home
-
Origins of Labor Movement
-
Many believed market revolution was against their republican values of liberty
-
Believed wage labor to be like slavery
-
-
Wanted no imprisonment for debt, shorter working hours, free education, etc.
-
Hated widening wealth gap
-
Labor unions campaigned for better rights
The Cotton Kingdom:
The Cotton Economy
The Rise of the Cotton Kingdom
-
Previously, tobacco was the most common crop in the region
-
Its price fluctuated a lot & it caused the soil to degrade → Its farmers shifted to other crops
-
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Rice was largely confined to wet regions like Florida & Georgia
-
Required lots of irrigation & labor
-
-
Sugar was mostly confined to Southern Coast
-
Very labor intensive & expensive to plant
-
Struggled to compete w/ sugar from Caribbean
-
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Short-staple cotton became common as it could grow in almost any climate
-
Much easier to plant than long-staple cotton
-
Eli Whitney's cotton gin (1793) made it easier to separate cotton seeds from the fiber
-
Helped revive slavery as tobacco decline caused slavery to decline
-
Actually caused slavery to grow
-
-
-
Cotton dominated the inland south (AL, MS, LA) → known as "Cotton Kingdom"
-
Wealthy planters migrated there w/ their slaves
-
Southern Economy
-
South had few industrial institutions
-
Small & insignificant textile mills & ironworks
-
-
"Factors" are brokers who would sell other farmers' crops on the market
-
Also acted as bankers for the farmers
-
-
Had other professionals (e.g. doctors, lawyers, etc.) but insignificant compared to the north
-
Terrible transportation network
-
No canals, few local railroads, not many intercity trains
-
-
James D B De Bow wrote De Bow's Review
-
Defended slavery, advocated for southern economic nationalism
-
Hated that the south was economically dependent on the north
-
-
Many factors made the South's agriculture boom & the North's agriculture decline
-
South had a hotter climate, suitable for agriculture & not industrialization
-
South had lots of wealthy landlords who invested so much in agriculture
-
Southern whites were also more gracious & wanted a refined way of life (agricultural life)
-
Southern Society
Wealthy Landowners
-
Wealthy landowners were a minority but had the most influence
-
Lots of slaves, large homes in the countryside, sometimes also had homes in the nearby town
-
Similar to the "old aristocracy" of England
-
Known as the "cavalier" image of life, unlike the "yankees" of the north
-
Lived an elegant, relaxing, and gracious life
-
Believed in ideals of honor and chivalry
-
Were treated with respect & courtesy
-
Males were known for dignity & authority
-
-
-
-
Still weren't super rich because crop prices fluctuated a lot
-
Sought to preserve slavery as they benefited from it
-
Those who hated agriculture joined the military, as it has the same ideals of chivalry
Wealthy White Women
-
Wealthy white women embodied the ideas of respect & "republican motherhood"
-
Were companions to their husbands
-
Believed in the ideals of courtesy
-
Detached from the public world due to social isolation
-
-
Those in large plantations rarely worked
-
Those in medium-sized plantations did spinning & weaving to make textiles
-
Often more many children, 1/2 died before age 5
-
Husbands often had children with female slaves, which their wives did not like
Middle-Class Whites
-
In addition to the wealthy whites, there were many poor & middle-class whites
-
Few had slaves, many were in debt
-
Did subsistence farming, few sold crops to the market
-
Had limited educational opportunities
-
Held few government positions compared to the wealthy whites
-
Some lived in dirty cabins & died of malnutrition
-
-
Many relied on wealthy whites for help
-
Used their cotton gins, sometimes sought financial assistance from them
-
Wealthy sometimes helped the poor sell their crops
-
-
Some could advance in society when cotton became popular
-
Had little energy to rebel against their subordinate position
-
Had a common belief of white supremacy with the wealthy whites
-
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Slavery
Slave Life
-
Slaves had very little (if any) rights
-
Weren't allowed to learn to read or write
-
Couldn't leave masters' property w/o permission
-
Couldn't attack whites or testify in court against whites
-
Whites would freely attack blacks
-
Were treated as property, not humans
-
Couldn't own property
-
-
Still, some slaves managed to learn to read/write, own property, be out after dark, etc.
-
Some masters had a close relationship w/ slaves
-
White men sometimes had children w/ female slaves
-
Slaves generally had good relations w/ their masters as they relied on them for food & clothing
-
-
Living conditions were poor
-
Ate good food (only positive side)
-
Had dirty houses, dirty clothes, cramped rooms, little medical care
-
-
US was one of the only places where slave population grew naturally
-
Gave owners an incentive to care for slaves
-
-
Most slaves worked in the field, but some worked in the masters' homes
-
Planted & harvested crops in the field
-
Women had to focus on domestic tasks (child rearing, cooking, etc.) on top of slave tasks
-
Domestic slaves served as cooks, butlers, etc.
-
Slave Families
-
Slave women bore children at a very young age
-
Often 14 or 15 y/o when they bore children
-
Sometimes married slaves of neighboring plantations
-
Some bore children with their masters as the children's father
-
-
Many slave families were easily broken apart
-
Owners could sell any family member away, breaking their existing family
-
Slaves would form new "adopted" families with their new fellow slaves
-
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Slavery in the Cities
-
Aside from plantations, some slaves served in the cites
-
They were more free as they could move around the city & mingle w/ other slaves
-
-
Worked in mining, lumbering, construction, etc.
-
Slave women & children sometimes worked in textile mills
-
Later on, more slaves (especially men) were sold to the countryside
-
Those who remained in the cities faced segregation
-
Slave Migrations & Slave Trade
-
Many slaves migrated to the new "cotton kingdom" region of the south
-
Some came with their masters
-
Others went with slave traders on foot, tied in coffles
-
-
Foreign slave trade was banned in 1808, but some slaves were still smuggled until 1850s
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Slave Resistance & Nat Turner Rebellion
-
Slaves obviously weren't happy with their condition & sought to rebel
-
Whites prohibited them from learning to read & write so they don't learn about their condition
-
Still, some managed to attempt to revolt
-
-
Some slaves passively revolted
-
Worked slowly & poorly, broke tools, etc.
-
-
Some slaves actually revolted by fighting whites
-
Very rare & unsuccessful
-
-
In 1831, Nat Turner led a group of slaves armed w/ guns & weapons to rebel against whites
-
Killed 60 whites in Virginia
-
Government stopped this rebellion
-
Largest slave rebellion in the South
-
-
Some slaves escaped to the North
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Traveled via the "underground railroad," a network of secret passages & safe houses to allow slaves to escape
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Slave patrols would capture runaway slaves
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Still, some managed to escape to the North or even to Canada
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La Amistad Slave Revolt (1839)
Slaves were on board La Amistad, a slave ship transporting slaves between 2 Cuban ports. They took over the ship & tried sailing it eastward to Africa
A US government ship seized the ship, took it back to the US
US abolitionists made the government send the slaves back to Africa
Slave Culture
Language
Initially couldn't communicate w/ other slaves as they were from all over Africa. Now developed a common language called pidgin, harmonized English & African languages
Music
Harmonized Western music techniques with African ones. Developed emotional & spiritual music. Call & Response music style was popular. Developed their own dancing styles.
Religion
Created their own style of Christianity (such as voodoo), harmonizing Christianity w/ African religions. Very spiritual & emotional, emphasized their dream of freedom
What theme is common among all aspects of slave culture?
All aspects of slave culture represent the idea of cultural syncretism. Cultural syncretism is the idea of combining elements from multiple cultures to form a new culture. Slaves combined different aspects of the cultures of different regions of Africa as well as the culture of the Americas to form a new syncretic slave culture.
Free Blacks
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About 250k free blacks in the south
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Often had enough money to buy their freedom
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Most lived in poverty, but some got wealthy
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Few even had their own slaves
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As they became more common, cities tightened restrictions & laws on free blacks
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Whites resented living with free blacks, especially after slave revolts
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Believed free blacks would threaten their peaceful lifestyle
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Some states prohibited free blacks
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Southerners wanted to tighten control over free blacks as abolitionism grew in the North
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19th Century Reform Movements:
Individualist Reform Movements
Origins of Individualism
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Market Revolution caused great social changes
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People had to work in factories & had less freedom of their own
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People were living in dirty & crowded places
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People had little leisure time to think about themselves
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The idea of individualism emerged to combat the social changes brought by market revolution
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Believed people are totally free & not dependent on others
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Believed anyone can achieve success in life
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Believed everyone has some full potential they can achieve if society doesn't confine them
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This influenced 2nd Great Awakening, Transcendentalism, etc.
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Reforms in Art & Visions of Nature
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Americans wanted their own distinct culture
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Americans sought to depict the nature & the sublime in their artwork
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The Hudson River School taught people to paint depictions of the sublime in nature
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Believed the natural world of America was full of the sublime and great promises
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These artists sought to protect nature from economic damage
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Believed it was a source of inspiration
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Failed to protect nature from settlement as they had no scientific proof to their claims
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Reforms in Literature
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Most literature talked about individualist ideas
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Talked about freedom, nature, sublime, etc.
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James Fenimore Cooper wrote about the American wilderness
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Evoked emotion and ideas of individualism
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Walt Whitman also wrote stories about individualism & the liberation of the mind
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Herman Melville wrote about individual strength
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Edgar Allan Poe wrote stories about sad themes
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Evoked deeper emotions of pain
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Southern authors wrote about depictions of plantation life
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William Gilmore Simms (South Carolina) wrote many pro-slavery works
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Mark Twain wrote realistic stories about plantation life
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Transcendentalism
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A group of individualists that believed people can achieve their full potential
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Believed their understanding was confined by society's norms and they can somehow surpass society's norms to achieve their true potential
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Ralph Waldo Emerson was the first major transcendentalist
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In his works, "Nature" and "Self Reliance," he believed people should harmonize themselves with nature to achieve their true potential
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Henry David Thoreau believed people should do things according to their own instincts instead of following society's expectations
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Wrote Walden (1854) while in isolation & wrote about his freedom there
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Briefly went to jail for refusing to pay taxes as he hated that the tax money would fund unnecessary things
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Utopia
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Some individualists believed in a perfect society, where everyone has freedom
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George Ripley created Brook Farm, a Utopian community in MA in 1841
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Labor & leisure time was distributed equally
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Everyone had to do manual labor
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This failed as people hated doing labor, and a fire destroyed the central building in 1847
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Everyone left & the community dissolved
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Robert Owen created a utopian community called New Harmony in Indiana in 1825
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All residents lived equally
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Economic failure → community dissolved
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Attempted Reforms in Gender Relations
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Some individualists sought to promote equality between men & women
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Margaret Fuller was a journalist who advocated for women's rights
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John Humphrey Noyes created Oneida community in upstate NY
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Rejected traditional roles of gender & marriage → all residents were "married" to each other
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Children were raised communally by all adults
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Mother Ann Lee founded the Shakerism movement in 1770s
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Believed in celibacy, no Shaker could give birth
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Believed in sexual equality
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Amana Colonies were established by German immigrants to Iowa in 1843
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Believed in pious, simple lives with sexual equality
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The Creation of the Mormon Church
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The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) began in upstate NY
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Started by Joseph Smith
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Published Book of Mormon (1830), believed an ancient prophet wrote it
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Believed there was a civilization in America, populated by descendants of ancient Israel
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Believed people need to do good works and achieve the grace of god to achieve salvation
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Differs from other Christians, who believe salvation can be achieved by god alone
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Sought to establish their own community of "New Jerusalem"
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They were kicked out of most of their communities for their faith
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Settled in Nauvoo, IL, but they were kicked out and Smith was arrested & killed
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Mormons then settled in Salt Lake City (UT), which still exists today
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Mormons believed in human perfectibility
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Believed anyone could become a saint
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Emphasized basic social unit of the family
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Believed in a rigid social hierarchy, distant from that of the modernized world
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Overall believed in having a religious order to provide security for those who were displaced in modern society
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What is the general goal of the Mormon Church?
Mormons believed in providing security and order for people who were negatively affected in the rapidly modernizing & industrializing society. It emphasizes the family unit and believes that anyone can become a saint and that people must do good works and get the grace of god to achieve salvation. Mormons considered themselves part of Christianity, but other Christians often disregarded the Mormons.
Societal Reform Movements
Second Great Awakening
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Church leaders hated low church attendance & wanted to slow the spread of rationalism
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New denominations like Methodism & Baptism became super popular
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John Wesley founded Methodism in England
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Presbyterians were also influential
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Charles Grandison Finney was one of the main leaders of the movement
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Held some of his own revival meetings
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At Cane Ridge in KY in 1801, thousands of evangelicals met to discuss how to revive the church
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Promoted idea that god was active in the world & anyone can achieve salvation
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Salvation can be achieved through good works
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Rejected Calvinist idea of predestination, believed anyone can achieve salvation
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Appealed to many women as the market revolution gave more subordination to women
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Working in factories & not spinning thread at home deprived many women
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Women found spiritual revival the 2nd Great Awakening to escape the hardships at home
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Blacks also found revival in the movement
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Some sought liberty for slaves
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Gabriel Prosser planned a slave revolt in VA, but whites put it down
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Natives also felt the revival & sought to rise up against whites to defend their land
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The Indian Prophet Neolin encouraged natives to reject Christian ideas and revive tribal traditions
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An Indian called Handsome Lake called to revive traditional Iroquois customs
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Reforms against Alcoholism
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Many believed alcohol to be a big problem
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Women believed men's purchase of alcohol strained the family's money
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As farmers in the west grew more grain, which was distilled into Whiskey, alcohol became popular
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Drinking became a common leisure activity
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American Society for the Promotion of Temperance (1826) sought to preach anti-alcoholism
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6 former alcoholics created Washington Temperance Society in 1840
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Became really popular among alcoholics who wanted to give up alcohol
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People were divided on how much to limit alcohol
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Some believed only beer & whiskey should be limited
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Others believed wine should also be limited
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Some believed states should restrict alcohol purchase; others believed it was personal choice
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Maine restricted alcohol purchase in 1851
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Protestants opposed alcohol, but Catholics believed it was an important pastime for them
Reforms in Medicine
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Medical knowledge was limited at the time
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Very little knowledge about germs or spread of bacteria
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People used ancient folk stories or random ideas from scholars to treat diseases
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Cholera spread through contaminated food/water
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Had severe epidemics in major midwest cities
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No one could do anything about it since they didn't know about germ spread
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People made up random medical theories
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"Water cure" involved putting people underwater until they lose their conscious and are thus free of the "madness" that caused the disease
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Sylvester Graham promoted eating only veggies (no meat) and bread from a special flour
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Graham cracker is named after him as it uses that flour
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Phrenology was the idea of using the shapes of people's skulls to decipher their talents & opportunities, etc.
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Advances in medicine were very slow
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Most experiments required actual humans instead of inanimate objects
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Dentist William Morton used an ether to calm his patients during teeth extraction
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Became a very famous treatment
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Some inexperienced people joined the medical field
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People often didn't accept medical advances as they weren't sure which were actually good
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Oliver Wendell Holmes discovered the idea of contagion (the spread of diseases between people)
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Reforms in Education
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In the 1830s, people started campaigning for a public education system
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Believed education allowed people to achieve their full potential
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Horace Mann reformed the Massachusetts education system
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The First secretary of MA Board of Education (1837)
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Increased teachers' salaries, lengthened school year, reformed the curriculum
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Other states in the Northeast followed Mann's model & built their own public school systems
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Bronson Alcott created schools with radical transcendentalist methods
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Did not punish the children, allowed the children to learn themselves (it "awakens" their soul)
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Very controversial, schools were forced to close
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Perkins School for the Blind was opened in MA
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Believed handicapped people can discover their inner strength & wisdom
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There were still many disparities in the system
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Many children (especially blacks) didn't attend school
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Some teachers were inexperienced & barely literate
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Some people sought to "civilize" the natives by bringing them to these schools
Reforms for the Mentally ill
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Previously, everyone who committed a crime would be put in jail
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Mentally ill weren't getting proper treatment & would be punished for their behavior
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Dorothea Dix observed these prisons & hated the horrible treatment of the mentally ill
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Began a national movement to get better treatment for mentally ill in prisons
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Eventually, states created penitentiaries for the mentally ill
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These are quiet and open, allowing for people to reflect on their wrongdoings w/ little punishment
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From this movement, almshouses & workhouses were built for poor people
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Allowed them to work & gain a higher position in society
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Early Feminist Movement
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Women became exposed to the ideas of individualism as they played an important role in other movements
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Thus, women started to advocate for equality between men & women
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Lucretia Mott & Elizabeth Cady Stanton organized a women's convention at Seneca Falls, NY (1848)
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Mott & Stanton were rejected from attending an all male anti-slavery conference in London in 1840
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This is why they hosted this convention
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Drafted "Declaration of Sentiments," modeled on the Declaration of Independence
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Believed "all men and women were created equal"
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Elizabeth Blackwell became the first certified female physician
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Women created their own style of dress in which they could freely move around
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Known as "bloomer costume" after Amelia Bloomer
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Slavery Abolitionist Movement
Initial Idea of Recolonization
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Actual abolitionist movement gained momentum in 1830s
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Before 1830s, abolitionists sought to relocate the slaves back to West Africa (known as colonization
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American Colonization Society (est. 1817) sought to send slaves back to Africa
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Wanted a gradual emancipation of slaves and transport of slaves to West Africa
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Was successful in sending some slaves back → They founded nation of Liberia (in West Africa)
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Colonization idea failed in long term as there were too many slaves & not enough money
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Many slaves were born in the US & had no connection with West Africa
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Later Abolitionists
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William Lloyd Garrison was a major white abolitionist in the north
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Founded his newspaper, The Liberator, in 1831
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Wrote about abolitionist topics, supported giving gradual equality to blacks
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Founded American Anti-Slavery Society (est. 1833), which promoted abolition
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All blacks in the north opposed slavery (obviously); some actively spoke out against it
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Sojourner Truth, a former slave who escaped, was a famous abolitionist
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Harriet Beecher Stowe made Uncle Tom's Cabin (est. 1851), a weekly serial & book depicting slave life
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Most blacks lived in worse conditions than whites & supported Garrison's vision for equality
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Frederick Douglass was one of the greatest black abolitionists
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Escaped slavery in 1838
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Gave anti-slavery speeches in US & Britain
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Founded his newspaper North Star (est. 1837)
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Promoted anti-slavery causes, wrote autobiographies about hardships of slavery
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Many abolitionists helped slaves escape to the north via the "underground railroad"
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A network of passages & safe houses for slaves to escape from the South to the North
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In Prigg v Pennsylvania (1842), court banned federal officials from returning runaway slaves to the south
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Previously, Fugitive Slave laws mandated the return of runaway slaves in the north back to the South
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Abolitionists campaigned for this law's reversal
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In 1840, abolitionists formed the Liberty Party
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James G Birney was 1st presidential candidate
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Didn't want abolition, only wanted slavery out of the new territories in the west
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Known as "free soil"
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These people became known as "free soilers"
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Attracted lots of support among white abolitionists
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Those Who Opposed the Abolitionists
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Many white northerners & all white southerners opposed abolitionism
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Believed giving equality to blacks would cause great social changes & problems
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Northern businessmen believed abolition would threaten their trade w/ the South
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There were many violent attacks on abolitionists
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Prudence Crandall admitted a few black girls into her private school in CT
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Locals protested & got her arrested
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A mob seized Garrison in Boston in 1835 & had him arrested, but he luckily wasn't killed
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Many believed abolitionists like Garrison to be too radical
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Some wanted gradual equality instead of immediate equality for blacks
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Some hated that a few abolitionists wanted to use violence to campaign against slavery
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Many hated that Garrison wanted to abolish prisons & asylums as well as slavery
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Important Terms & People
Link to flashcards: https://quizlet.com/551143207/apush-unit-4-flash-cards/
Summary
Developments in Jefferson's Presidency:
When Thomas Jefferson took power in 1801, he intended for the US to become a decentralized agrarian republic. He increased US power abroad and deceased government spending, allowing the US to develop its own economy. Furthermore, the Marbury v Madison Supreme Court case established the idea of Judicial review, where the judicial branch has the right to declare any actions done by the other 2 branches of government as unconstitutional. Also, more schools were built during his presidency, and religion started to decline. In 1803, he purchased the Louisiana territory from France, doubling the size of the US. He sent explorers, most notably Lewis and Clark, to explore the new land and determine its suitability for settlement.
War of 1812:
France & Britain were at war during the Napoleonic Wars, and the US struggled to remain neutral. When the US would trade with Britain, France would attack them, and when they would trade with France, Britain would attack them. Both nations imposed restrictions on American shipping. Due to declining enrollment in the British navy, Britain instituted the policy of impressment, where it would force British citizens to join the navy. Since many British navy troops defected onto American ships, Britain reserved the right to check any American ship for British defectors. In the Chesapeake-Leonard Affair (1807), the American ship refused to allow the British to check it, causing a small armed conflict. Thus, the US imposed a trade embargo on Britain & France until they'd remove their restrictions on American shipping. Furthermore, as the US sought to expand westward, the Indians resisted & acquired weapons from the British in Canada to help them. Tecumseh, an Indian, organized an army of Indians to attack the US. Finally, the US wanted to take over Florida, which was ruled by Spain (Britain's ally). All of these causes led to war with Britain in 1812. First, the US defeated the Indians at the Battle of Thames (1813). In the end, the US defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans (1815), ending the war. The peace settlement removed the restrictions on American shipping.
Pre-Jackson Era:
The era after the War of 1812, mostly during Monroe's and Adams's presidencies, was known as the "Era of Good Feelings." During this time, American power increased & more people migrated westward. Speaker Henry Clay promoted the "American System," a series of internal improvements to boost the American economy. Furthermore, the US annexed Florida in 1819. The Monroe Doctrine established the US as the dominant power in the Western hemisphere. However, there were a few negative events, such as the Panic of 1819, a financial panic that caused many speculators to lose money, and the Missouri Compromise (1820), a temporary sectional conflict over the issue of slavery in the new territories. The election of 1824 was a crazy scenario that had to be determined by the House, and its winner, President John Q Adams, promoted American economic & diplomatic power.
Jacksonian Era:
Andrew Jackson was elected in 1828. Since he was originally a commoner, he supported the rights of ordinary people & a widening democracy. During his presidency, many states allowed landless white males to vote, and democracy was seen to be more participatory. His 2nd VP, Martin Van Buren, believed in having 2 distinct political parties, so each party can check the power of the other. The Nullification Crisis temporarily caused a sectional conflict as his first VP, John Calhoun, sought to threaten the stability of the nation. Furthermore, in the Georgia area, there were many civilized Indian tribes that had a stable economy & administration. Jackson sought to remove them & forced them to migrate to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, and this migration is known as the Trail of Tears. Also, because Jackson believed in a widening democracy, he sought to abolish the national bank, and he also put Roger Taney in charge of the Supreme Court, who reflected Jackson's interests of a widening democracy. Finally, 2 distinct political parties emerged: Democrats and Whigs. Martin Van Buren (D) became president after, but he failed to manage the Financial Panic of 1837, so 2 Whig presidents took over afterward, increasing US industrial & diplomatic power.
Market Revolution:
The Market Revolution was a major economic transformation in the US. One part of it, the industrial revolution, was a transition from manual labor and farm work to factory work and artificial labor. The 2nd part of it, the communications revolution, was an increase in the number of long-distance roads, canals, railroads, steamboats, telegraphs, and other transportation & communication networks. The Erie Canal (1817) is one of the biggest projects built at the time. This revolution allowed for westward migration as people could easily travel, which caused the growth of many cities in the Midwest, like Chicago, St. Louis, and Cincinnati, which were located along major railroads or rivers. Finally, more Europeans immigrated to the Americas (especially from Ireland & Germany), which caused feelings of nativism among Americans. The revolution caused great social changes, changing the social dynamics as more people worked outside the home and more people were believed to be "less free" and more bound to society's norms. Those who did not work in the factories did domestic labor or worked as domestic servants.
The Cotton Kingdom:
As the tobacco crop started to decline, the southern economy started to stagnate. However, when Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793, it became easier to harvest cotton (which could be grown in almost any climate), so more people migrated westward (to Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, etc.) to grow cotton. The South had many wealthy slave owners who lived comfortable lives according to the values of respect & honor, and their wives embodied the ideals of republican motherhood. On top of that, the majority of white southerners had no slaves, and they relied on the wealthy people for machinery or access to markets. The slaves were treated poorly, but their condition was much better than their counter parts in Brazil & the Caribbean and also much better than northern industrial workers. Slaves often bore children, allowing for the slave population to grow naturally, but masters could sell slaves away any time, breaking the slave families. Some slaves served in the cities, performing local errands. As the westward land opened up for cotton cultivation, some slaves were sent there in coffles to be sold. Slaves developed their own culture, which syncretized American culture with African cultures. They often sought to rebel, either passively or forcefully, most notably the unsuccessful Nat Turner Rebellion (1831). On top of that, there were some free blacks who mostly lived in poorer conditions than whites.
19th Century Reform Movements:
To combat the negative social effects of the Market Revolution, philosophers created the idea of individualism, a philosophy where everyone is totally free. This idea led to reform movements such as transcendentalism, utopian communities, the 2nd Great Awakening, and the creation of the Mormon church. The idea of individualism and subordination to nature is also found in American literature & artwork of the time. These ideas all led to the societal reform movements, such as reforms in education, mentally ill, medicine, reforms against alcoholism, and the feminist movement. The biggest reform movement the idea of individualism contributed to was the slavery abolitionist movement, which sparked lots of controversy in the North and in the South. This movement eventually led to more sectional conflict & the Civil War.