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Unit 2: c. 3,500 BCE - 300 CE
Ancient Mediterranean
Images 12-47
Main Ideas:
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As civilizations started to form, people appointed leaders to govern their civilizations, and they made artworks to showcase the power of their leaders, emphasizing a social hierarchy
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As civilizations started to expand, they often had conflict with other civilizations, so people created works of art to showcase their own civilization as superior
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Ancient Near Eastern Art
anea
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Often use long beards and elaborate headdresses to showcase the power of the king
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Show that the kings humbly accept God as their overlord in order to legitimize their own power
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Use hierarchy of scale to emphasize the strict Mesopotamian social hierarchies and king's power
Image 12: White Temple and its Ziggurat
Name
White Temple and its Ziggurat
Location
Uruk (Modern Warka, Iraq)
Culture
Sumerian
Date
c. 3500 - 3000 BCE
Material
Mud Brick
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Ziggurat is the main temple in each state → Shows the idea that the emperor rules on behalf of God (theocracy)
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Its large size emphasizes the power of the emperor and of God
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White temple is high above the ziggurat → Implies that God is higher than humans
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Dedicated to Goddess Anu
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White limestone glaze of the temple symbolizes God's purity and prominence
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The temple had some waiting rooms → Allow Anu to purify herself before seeing people
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Image 14: Statues of Votive Figures
Name
Statues of Votive Figures
Location
The Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq)
Culture
Sumerian
Date
c. 2700 BCE
Material
Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone
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Buried under a temple to stand-in for an elite person to show that the person is always praying to God
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Elite people (such as priests and rulers) are quite busy, so they cannot be praying to God all the time; hence, these figures replace them in temples and pray to God 24/7
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Have trapezoidal torso, huge eyes, and a head pointing upward to show that these figures are always humbly praying to God
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Long beard and long hair signify the high social status of the elite people for which these figures stand-in
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Image 16: Standard of Ur
Name
Standard of Ur
Location
Royal Tombs at Ur (modern Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq)
Culture
Sumerian
Date
c. 2600 - 2400 BCE
Material
Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone
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Both images show a social hierarchy with the king & nobility at the top, and commoners & slaves at the bottom
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Divided into 3 registers: Top has the king, middle has high-ranking commoners, and the bottom has commoners and slaves
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Hierarchy of scale: The king is larger in size than the other figures due to his importance
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Peace side: Depicts a typical scene at the king's court
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In the bottom and the middle registers, commoners and priests give offerings of animals (such as rams) to the king
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In the top register, seated nobles offer libations of wine to the king (on the left), and two musicians (on the right) play music for the king
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War side: Depicts a war scene
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In the bottom register, chariots are galloping & trampling opponents
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In the middle register, soldiers are defeating opponents & taking them captive
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In the top register, the king (in the middle) is offered prisoners of war
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Image 19: The Code of Hammurabi
Name
The Code of Hammurabi
Location
Babylon (modern Iran)
Culture
Susian
Date
c. 1792 - 1750 BCE
Material
Basalt
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These laws concern all aspects of society → Showcases Hammurabi's control over all aspects of society
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Different laws concern family life, agriculture, daily life, etc.
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There are around 300 laws
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Most laws are very strict (e.g. an eye for an eye) → Showcase Hammurabi's concern for maintaining stability through strict authority
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These laws are based on a social hierarchy → Reflect the social hierarchy of the Babylonians
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Different social classes got different punishments for the same crime (the lower classes got more severe punishments)
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At the top, Shamash (god of the sun) gives Hammurabi the power to administer justice
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As god of the sun, Shamash can control light and dark, a metaphor for the good and bad things
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Shamash gives Hammurabi a staff and a ring; These signify building tools → Show that Hammurabi can "build" the social order of Babylon through his law code
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Image 25: Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II
Name
Lamassu from the Citadel of Sargon II
Location
Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad, Iraq)
Culture
Neo-Assyrian
Date
720 - 705 BCE
Material
Alabaster
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Uses anthropomorphism and imagery to emphasize the power of King Sargon II
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A lamassu has a human head and a mythical body, possibly a griffin → Alludes to the supreme/supernatural powers of the king
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Shows the elaborate headdress, long curly beard, and long hair of King Sargon II → Emphasizes King Sargon II's power and elite status
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A cuneiform inscription tells that Sargon II receives his power from God → Legitimizes King Sargon II's power
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Looking at the lamassu from different perspectives shows a different image
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When looking from the front, the lamassu looks static → The king is watching is and has the power to prevent us from entering the citadel
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When looking from the side, the lamassu appears moving toward us → We are on the king's good side and can enter the citadel
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Image 30: Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes
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Name
Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes
Location
Persepolis, Iran
Culture
Persian
Date
c. 520 - 465 BCE
Material
Limestone
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Showcases the immense power, scope, and influence of the Persian Achaemenid Empire
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Large hypostyle hall had 72 columns, each crowned with a twin-headed bull, eagle, or lion → Represents Achaemenid royal authority
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The Achaemenid king receives guests in this hypostyle hall → Those guests are easily impressed by the king's power due to the hall's elaborate decorations
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The monumental staircase has relief sculptures of subject nations bringing tribute gifts to the king → Represents the idea that the Achaemenids are superior to all these lands
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Predynastic & Old Kingdom Egyptian Art
pokea
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During the Old Kingdom, pharaohs just had control over the northern part of present-day Egypt as the Egyptian Civilization was just forming
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Old Kingdom art mostly concerns spreading the power of the pharaohs and preserving their ka spirits to help establish and maintain the rule of the Egyptian pharaohs as the Egyptian Kingdom was just forming
Image 13: Palette of King Narmer
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Name
Palette of King Narmer
Culture
Predynastic Egypt
Date
c. 3000 - 2920 BCE
Material
Greywacke
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Interpretation 1: Represents the Unification of Upper & Lower Egypt under King Narmer
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Narmer has the crown of Upper Egypt (bowling pin) on the front & the crown of Lower Egypt (with the protruding curl) on the back
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Front depicts a literal sense of unity: Narmer defeats his enemies with arrows, and Horus gives Narmer the power to rule
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Back depicts a figurative sense of unity:
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Top register: A priest leads the 4 divine standards to vanquish his enemies (which are on the right in 2 rows, oriented sideways)
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Middle register: Two serpopards have intertwined necks
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Bottom register: A bull knocks over a fortress → Represents the pharaoh's victory over his enemies
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Interpretation 2: Life cycle of the sun
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Backside depicts a red crown, symbolizing dawn
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To the right of the king (very top right) is a boat entering a gate → Symbolizes the sun "entering" dawn (sunrise)
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Frontside depicts a white crown, symbolizing the sun shining brightly during the day
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Represents the king's role in the daily lives of Egyptians just like the daily cycle of the sun
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Image 15: Seated Scribe
Name
Seated Scribe
Location
Saqqara, Egypt
Culture
Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty
Date
c. 2620 - 2500 BCE
Material
Painted Limestone
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Found in a high-ranking person's tomb → Shows the importance and preciousness of scribes
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Scribes were among the few literate people in Egypt → Pharaohs often had personal scribes to write for them
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Often would write everything they see and would portray the pharaoh in a positive light
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Placed in a pharaoh's tomb to show that the scribes would continue to serve the pharaoh in his afterlife
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- Seated attentively and has wide open eyes → Shows that he's always watching the pharaoh to write down all his observations
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Depicted in a very naturalistic way, not idealized like a pharaoh
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No elaborate headdress or long beard like a pharaoh
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Image 17: Great Pyramids and Great Sphinx
Name
Great Pyramids (Menkaura, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx
Location
Giza, Egypt
Culture
Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty
Date
c. 2550 - 2490 BCE
Material
Cut limestone
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Pyramids: Symbolize the sun (and heaven) and are meant to house the ka spirits of the kings in their afterlife
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There are 3 pyramids, and each has the tomb of a corresponding pharaoh to preserve their soul and ka spirit
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Each pyramid also has a mortuary temple for the Egyptian people to worship the king in his afterlife
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Made of bright limestone → Meant to illuminate in the sun → Gives the pyramid a grandiose appearance that symbolizes the power of the king
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The steps of the pyramid are like rays of the sun → The pharaoh would "climb" the steps to reach the top of the pyramid, which is like heaven
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Great Sphinx: A lion head with a human body → Represents a connection between Earth (human) and heaven (lion)
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Symbolizes a social hierarchy
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The pyramids' magnificence showcases the power of the pharaoh
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The smaller mastabas around the pyramids honor the pharaohs' families → Showcase the power of the royal family
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Peasants (farmers during drought season) had to haul heavy blocks of limestone from quarries to make the pyramids → Represent the lower classes' obedience & submission toward the upper classes
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Image 18: King Menkaura and Queen
Name
King Menkaura and Queen
Culture
Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty
Date
c. 2490 - 2472 BCE
Material
Greywacke
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Shows a youthful appearance of King Menkaura & Queen Khamerernebty to idealize their power
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Both figures look like young adolescents and don't show much age → Depicts them in a somewhat "divine" powerful form to showcase their power as king/queen
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Both have elaborate headdresses, and the king has a long beard → Symbols of royalty and high social status
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People would use this figure to worship the king after he died (to house his ka spirit)
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Shows marital affection to symbolize the roles that wives have toward their husbands
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The queen has her arms around the king → Shows the affection and submission that wives have toward their husbands
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New Kingdom Egyptian Art
nkea
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During the New Kingdom, Egypt became really wealthy due to its control over more territory to the South, especially the gold-rich land of Nubia (Sudan)
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New Kingdom art is more concerned with showing Egyptian Gods, culture, and richness to establish Egyptian hegemony in the region it controls
Image 20: Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall
Name
Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall
Location
Karnak, Near Luxor, Egypt
Culture
New Kingdom, 18th and 19th Dynasties
Date
Temple: c. 1550 BCE
Hypostyle Hall: c. 1250 BCE
Material
Cut Sandstone and Mud Brick
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Temple created to honor Amun-Re, the sun god
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Location in Thebes is sacred and known for the cult of Amun-Re, and its location along the Nile allows for periodic floods, which are sacred
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Represents the Benben mound (Egyptian Creation Myth): The Benben mound is a land that rose from primordial waters and became Egypt
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The pylons (the gate at the front) represents the horizon, and as we enter the pylon and proceed through the temple, the ground rises, bringing us closer to God
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The columns of the temple are designed with lotus, papyrus, and palm plants to represent the marsh-like environment of primordial Egypt
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Hypostyle hall is open (like a clerestory hall) → Allows sunlight to fall in → Makes us feel closer to Amun-Re
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Hypostyle hall is a hall whose roof rests on internal columns
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The columns have inscriptions & decorations that showcase the richness of Egypt
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Image 21: Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
Name
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
Location
Near Luxor, Egypt
Culture
New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty
Date
c. 1473 - 1458 BCE
Material
Sandstone, partially carved into a rock cliff, and red granite
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Temple: Symbolizes the stability and longevity of Hatshepsut's reign
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Her mortuary temple is built into a cliffside → The temple is stick to the cliff and will never move → Symbolizes her reign's stability/longevity
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The vertical lines of the columns represents a continuation of the vertical lines on the cliff face above → Show that Hatshepsut is capable of continuing Egyptian social order without any chaos
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Shows that Hatshepsut is capable of maintaining stability (or "ma'at")
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- Her Kneeling Statue: Emphasizes Hatshepsut's masculinity → Gives legitimacy to her rule even though she's a female
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The males in her family (Thutmose I, II, and III) all opposed her rule as a female → She needed to prove to them that she was capable
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Has male features: Broad shoulders, smaller breasts, elaborate headdress, long beard
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Maintains a sense of formality with her posture → Emphasizes her power and respect
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Holds offerings in cups to God since God would pass in front of her
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Image 22: Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters
Name
Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters
Culture
New Kingdom (Amarna), 18th Dynasty
Date
c. 1353 - 1335 BCE
Material
Limestone
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Glorifies Akhenaton and his wife Nefertiti and promotes the sun god Aten
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During the Amarna Period (1353-1335 BCE), Akhenaton replaced the sun god Amun-Re with Aten and made himself the only one who would worship it
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Here, Aten is projecting his sun rays, but only the rays that hit Akhenaton and Nefertiti have the ankh (symbolizing life) → Only Akhenaton and Nefertiti can worship Aten
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Tries to promote the idea that Aten is the official Egyptian sun god, not Amun-Re
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Showcases Akhenaton & Nefertiti in an idealized form with curved backs → Symbolizes royal power
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Shows intimate family relationships to challenge the idea of a strict patriarchy
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Akhenaton believed in having more affection toward the family rather than having all wives submit to their husbands (like Image 18)
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Akhenaton is kissing one of his daughters, and the other 2 daughters appear playfully with the family → Showcase an intimate family bond
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Image 23: Tutankhamun's Tomb, Innermost Coffin
Name
Tutankhamun's Tomb, Innermost Coffin
Culture
New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty
Date
c. 1323 BCE
Material
Gold with inlay of enamel and semi-precious stones
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Made of solid gold → Emphasizes the "divine" power of King Tut in his afterlife since people believed that God's skin was made of gold
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Holds a crook and flail: Symbols of a king's right to rule
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Goddesses Nekhbet (patron of Upper Egypt) and Wadjet (patron of Lower Egypt) spread their wings along his body → Emphasize King Tut's rule over the entire Egypt (Upper + Lower Egypt)
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Isis and Nephthys are also engraved in the gold: Symbolize the King's power and reincarnation
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Death mask is solid gold (22.5 pounds) and has the striped headdress worn by many pharaohs → Emphasizes his "divine" power
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Back of the death mask has a spell from the Book of the Dead that provides King Tut with guidance and protection in his afterlife
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Image 24: Last Judgement of Hu-Nefer
Name
Last Judgement of Hu-Nefer (page from the Book of the Dead)
Culture
New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty
Date
c. 1275 BCE
Material
Painted papyrus scroll
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Shows a scene where Hu-Nefer (a scribe) is asking the gods if he can move on to the afterlife or not
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Anubis (the jackal-headed god) presides over a scale that balances Hu-Nefer's life deeds
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The left side has the heart of the dead (meant for his bad deeds)
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The right side has the feather from the ma'at, signifying balance and order (meant for his good deeds)
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The right side of the scale is heavier (which means Hu-Nefer did more good deeds in his life than bad deeds) → He can move on to the afterlife
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Horus holds an ankh (symbolizing life) and introduces Hu-Nefer to Osiris (god of the underworld) as he enters the afterlife
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Isis and Nephthys are in the underworld (rightmost side) as they are goddesses associated with the afterlife
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Archaic Greek Art
aga
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Very simplistic in its composition; much less emotion, diversity, intricacy, naturalism, or realism than Classical or Hellenistic Greek Art
Image 26: Athenian Agora
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Name
Athenian Agora
Location
Athens, Greece
Culture
Archaic through Hellenistic Greek
Date
600 BCE - 150 CE
Material
Plan
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The structures are very open and centered around a common space → Represents tenets of direct democracy by allowing all white male Athenians to discuss policy
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Athens had a direct democracy: All free white adult males could vote on any public legislation
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The structures in the agora were very open and allowed for such discussions by the citizens on public issues
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White males who were good orators could speak about their ideas to the other citizens present
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If one citizen was usurping too much power, the other citizens could ostracize them (banish them from Athens)
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Many inscriptions that mention ostracisms are in the Agora
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In addition to discussing policy, the open plan allows merchants and customers to interact with each other and discuss goods for sale
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The Stoa is a covered portico (walkway), through which an annual procession takes place to the Acropolis
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Image 27: Anavysos Kouros
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Name
Anavysos Kouros
Culture
Archaic Greek
Date
c. 530 BCE
Material
Marble with remnants of paint
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Represents a youth male body in an idealized (stiff) way
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Stiffness (idealism) is characteristic of the Archaic era; relaxedness (naturalism) is characteristic of the Classical era
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Kouros means "youth male"
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Very muscular, tense, and lean → Shows off power and high social status
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Completely naked → Shows of realistic and proportional anatomy
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Represents an interest in realism and understanding the true human form
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Archaic smile: Symbolizes high social status (not necessarily happiness)
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Grave marker for the upper class
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Image 28: Peplos Kore from the Acropolis
Name
Peplos Kore from the Acropolis
Culture
Archaic Greek
Date
c. 530 BCE
Material
Marble, painted details
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Represents a female youth body in an idealized (stiff) way → Showcases high social status & comfort
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The body is very stiff and idealized, not really naturalistic
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Archaic smile: Symbolizes comfort and high social status
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Could be originally the sculpture of a goddess (maybe Artemis)
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Left arm is broken of, could have held a bow & arrow (as Artemis is the goddess of hunting)
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Slight red coloration that washed away
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Used to mark graves and as an offering to gods
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Classical Greek Art
cga
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Used mathematical proportions to create naturalistic and realistic sculptures; Used drapery and intricate details to reveal human anatomical shapes;
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Sought to showcase sculptures in an idealized way → Used as a model for many societies in the future
Image 33: Niobides Krater
Name
Niobides Krater
Artist
Anonymous vase painter of Classical Greece known as the Niobid Painter
Date
c. 460 - 450 BCE
Material
Clay, Red-figure technique (white highlights)
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Front: Niobe claimed her kids were more numerous & beautiful than those of Goddess Leto → Leto's kids (Artemis & Apollo) killed all of Niobe's children
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The figures have some stiffness (like archaic style) but are more relaxed and natural (like classical style) (this hybrid is known as severe style)
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Apollo's arms are a bit tensed up as he's pulling is bow, but his body is in a wider stance, making him more relaxed
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Back: Heracles (Greek divine hero) is floating in the center, and the warriors around him are asking him for blessings for the Battle of Marathon (490 BCE)
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Heracles is depicted in a classical relaxed style → Gives him a sense of honor and respect
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Image 34: Doryphoros (Spear Bearer)
Name
Doryphoros (Spear Bearer)
Artist
Polykleitos
Date
Orignal version: 450 - 440 BCE
Material
Roman copy (marble) of a Greek original (bronze)
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Greeks believed that perfect mathematical ratios create beauty, perfection, and harmony
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In Archaic age, exactness of the body (like stiffness) created beauty, but in Classical age, perfect ratios (not necessarily stiffness) created beauty
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Polykleitos was a Greek mathematician & promoted use of exact mathematical ratios to create harmony
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Believed beauty is derived from mathematical harmony
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Uses contrapposto (counterbalance) to show naturalism
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Rather than stiffness and symmetry, the figure is more natural with different "weights" in different places, so the figure as a whole is more symmetric and equally-distributed
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His left arm and right leg are tensed
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His right arm and left leg are relaxed
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His left side feels compressed → Head is turned to his right
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Contrapposto also showcases honor and respect
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A Roman copy of a Greek sculpture
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Romans conquered Greek cities since 211 BCE & crazed for Greek art
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Greek bronze would wear down quickly, so Roman copies were in marble, which were more permanent (and largely still exist today)
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Image 35: Acropolis
Name
Acropolis
Location
Athens, Greece
Artist
Iktinos and Kallikrates (architects)
Date
c. 447 - 410 BCE
Material
Marble
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Parthenon: Huge temple dedicated to Athena → Represents Athens's dominance over other Greek city-states
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Commissioned by Pericles after Athens moved the Delian League's treasury to Athens to finance the construction of the Parthenon
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Meant to show Athens's power among all the Greek city-states
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Had a huge golden statue of Athena (now lost)
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Doric temple with some Ionic elements
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Doric: The columns are big and sturdy with fluting (grooves)
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Ionic: The panels above and below the columns have elegantly-decorated friezes
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The friezes depict the history of Athens and of Greece → Overall, they represent Athens's dominance over the Greek city-states
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The friezes above the parthenon had 92 metopes depicting the victory of the Athenian order over chaos
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Another frieze showed the victory of Athena over Poseidon
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Poseidon struck a rock and caused water to spring forward, but Athena touched her spear to the ground to sprout an olive tree
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Athena was declared the victor as the olive tree symbolized the peace and prosperity of Athens
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Made with perfect mathematical proportions (feature of Classical Age)
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Plaque of Ergastines (in the Erechtheion): Shows the Pan-Athenaic Procession to honor Athena (patron deity of Athens) → Showcases the power of Athena & Athens
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Pan-Athenaic Procession: A procession led by the Athenian people from the city up to the Acropolis to honor Athena
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Ergastines were young women who'd bring peplos (a long garment) to clothe a sculpture of Athena as well as libations and animal sacrifices for Athena
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Figures have a lot of drapery and somewhat stand in contrapposto (both part of Classical Greek style)
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Nike adjusting her sandal: Nike is goddess of victory → Nike's elegant demeanor praises Athens's dominance
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Located in the Temple of Athena Nike, Nike (the goddess of victory) is adjusting her sandal in this frieze
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The temple likely symbolized Greek victory over the Persians
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The drapery is very elaborate and mimics the lines and composition of her body's anatomy
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While she's bending over, her winds and hands help her maintain her balance → Contrapposto
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General idea: The architecture, location, and friezes all depict Athens's dominance among the other Greek city-states
Image 36: Grave Stele of Hegeso
Name
Grave Stele of Hegeso
Artist
Attributed to Kallimachos
Date
c. 410 BCE
Material
Marble and paint
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Represents the domesticity of women
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Hegeso is a seated woman (on right side), opening a box of jewelry presented to her by her servant
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Shown in a domestic setting
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The drapes around Hegeso's legs fall around the chair and have lots of intricate details → Represent the gracefulness of domesticity and the solemnity of a grave
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The drapes and veil seem very delicate → Hint at the woman's emotional fragility and her need to stay in the domestic sphere
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The photo is boxed on the front of the stele → Indicates that women are isolated from their communities and can only inhabit the domestic sphere
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Meant to be a grave marker
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The top had an inscription mentioning Hegeso's father → Shows that women had a limited role in society and were only known through the names of their fathers
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Hellenistic Greek Art
hga
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Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE → Split his empire into Ptolemaic (Egypt), Antigonid (Macedonia/Turkey), and Seleucid (Persia) Dynasties → Greek culture spread to these regions and influenced local cultures
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Hellenistic Greek art is more emotional and energetic and seeks to showcase Greek culture in a way that's appealing to the people of these other regions
Image 37: Winged Victory of Samothrace
Name
Winged Victory of Samothrace
Culture
Hellenistic Greek
Date
c. 190 BCE
Material
Marble
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Represents excessive Greek pride and energy
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As Greek culture started to spread in the Hellenistic Era, it became more expressive and emotional, and this work seeks to showcase Greek pride in the face of other cultures
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Nike (goddess of victory) is on the prow of a ship, showcasing her pride and energy against the wind
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Her body is twisted → Gives her more energy
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Her wings also give more energy
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Image 38: Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon
Name
Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon
Location
Asia Minor (Present-day Turkey)
Culture
Hellenistic Greek
Date
c. 175 BCE
Material
Marble
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Shows a battle between the Gods (Athena & Zeus) and the Giants → Represents a victory of the Greeks over the chaotic forces of nature
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First detail: Athena
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Athena has grabbed Alcyoneus by the hair and his pulling him out of the Earth, and her snakes are also attacking him
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The Winged Nike (to her right) is crowning her
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Second Detail: Zeus
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His eagles and thunderbolts help him fight off 3 giants
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Both friezes show a sense of drama, heroism, and excitement
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Represent the emotional dramatic sense of Greek culture during the Hellenistic era
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Image 41: Seated Boxer
Name
Seated Boxer
Culture
Hellenistic Greek
Date
c. 100 BCE
Material
Bronze
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Shows a naturalized depiction of a boxer in his true sad emotion rather than idealizing him
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Hellenistic art was more emotional & natural
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This image is showing a tired boxer's true sad emotions, rather than idealizing him as heroic
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Unlike classical figures which are idealized and on a pedestal, meant to be an example for society (like Image 34), this is meant to depict a tired boxer like he really is (in his sad, seated state)
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His seated posture shows humility and informality and allows us to empathize more with his sadness
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His face & body show suffering & defeat
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Copper has some redness → Represent bleeding, wounds, and exhaustion
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Right leg is straight out → Represents exhaustion
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Made with Lost Wax Casting
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Uses a template to cast a hollow sculpture around it → Allowed for the sculptures intricate design, which helps show the true emotions of the boxer
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This is a Greek original (made of Bronze), not a Roman copy (usually made of marble)
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Etrurian Art
ea
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In Etruscan society, funerals were not somber but rather festive celebrations of one's life → Funeral-related artworks showcase this sense of conviviality
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Etruscans learned about Greek art by trading with Greeks, but because they became super wealthy through Italy's natural resources, they added their own "elegant touch" to their copies/adaptations of Greek traditions
Image 29: Sarcophagus of the Spouses
Name
Sarcophagus of the Spouses
Culture
Etruscan
Date
c. 520 BCE
Material
Terra cotta
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Shows a convivial relaxed scene regarding a funeral banquet
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The couple's relaxed and partially reclined position shows comfort, elegance, and conviviality
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Stylized with the archaic smile
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Shows the man and woman as somewhat equals → Women in Etruscan society had more power than women in Greece, Rome, etc.
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Uses the convivial and relaxed ambience to celebrate a person's life in a funeral banquet (more in Image 32)
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In Etruscan society, death was not seen as somber but rather as a festive celebration of one's life accomplishments
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The two figures are likely holding banquet-related items
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The sarcophagus was meant to store the dead body
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Image 31: Temple of Minerva and Sculpture of Apollo
Name
Temple of Minerva and Sculpture of Apollo
Location
Veii, near Rome
Artist
Master Sculptor Vulca
Date
c. 510 - 500 BCE
Material
Original Temple: Wood, Mud Brick, or Tufa (Volcanic Rock)
Sculpture: Terra Cotta
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(Both Temple & Sculpture): Represents Etruscan adaptations of Greek culture, but in a more elegant way
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Temple is similar in structure to Greek temples, but a few differences:
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Etruscan Temples
Greek Temples
Made of wood, terracotta, & other weak materials → Have mostly broken down and don't exist today
Made of stone & marble → Very sturdy and mostly still exist today
High entrance (above ground level)
Low entrance (at ground level)
Columns only in the front porch, and entrance only through front porch
Columns are all around the temple → You can enter through any columns on any side of the temple
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Behind the large front porch are 3 rooms, each representing one god in the Divine Triad:
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Minerva (Athena)
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Tinia (Zeus)
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Uni (Hera)
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- Large sculpture of Apollo was also copied from Greek culture but was depicted in a more elegant way
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His archaic smile and all the swirls in his dress convey a sense of idealism, elegance, and high social status
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Much less stiff and naturalistic than Greek Archaic and Classical sculptures
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Meant to represent a mythic tableau against the backdrop of the sky → Allows people to view the sculpture's elegance from far away
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There were many other idealized terracotta sculptures of Greek gods on the roof as well
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Image 32: Tomb of the Triclinium
Name
Location
Tarquinia, Italy
Culture
Etruscan
Date
c. 480 - 470 BCE
Material
Tufa and fresco
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Elite Etruscans participated in elaborate funerary rites to honor the dead person's achievements and importance by sharing a "final meal" with them in a funerary banquet
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In Etruscan society, funerals were not somber but rather celebrations of one's life achievements
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All the paintings highlight this celebratory feel
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The tomb has many elaborate decorations because the Etruscans amassed wealth from Italy's natural resources and from trade
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The main painting (on the back wall) shows a banquet scene
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3 couches, each with a pair of reclining diners (man and woman), with 2 servants attending them
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Their conviviality and relaxation highlights the festive nature of this funerary rite (like Image 29)
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A side wall (not pictured) shows people dancing and playing the barbiton (similar to lyre) → Highlights the festive feel
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The elaborate decorations also highlight the high social class of the dead person
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Republican Roman Art
rra
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Uses imagery to establish the basic customs of Roman society without excessive emotion, such as paterfamilias (male family head), patrocinium (client-patron relationship), strong family bonds, and respect for Greek culture
Image 39: House of the Vettii
Name
House of the Vettii
Location
Pompeii, Italy
Culture
Imperial Roman (because of rebuild date)
Date
c. 2nd century BCE;
Rebuilt c. 62 - 79 CE
Material
Cut stone and fresco
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The structure of the house and the elaborate decorations showcase the emphasis on family life and the client-patron relationship in Roman society
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In Roman society, paterfamilias (patrons; male family heads) had lots of wealth & power and would have many clients that they serve → They decorated the public part of their house to appeal to the clients in order to maintain their loyalty & support
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Decorated their reception hall with large elaborate frescos to showcase their wealth
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The paterfamilias's office (tiblinium) is very large and decorated
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The paterfamilias would help and protect their clients in exchange for their clients' support (client-patron relationship known as patrocinium)
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The fresco is very sophisticated as it shows gods and nymphs in a detailed manner → Meant to appeal to the clients
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The fresco was likely remade in the Imperial Roman Era, which is why it's more sophisticated
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The private part of the house is not decorated as much and is very open → Emphasis on strong family bond
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The bedrooms are small, encouraging the family members to spend more time in the common area with their family
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Image 40: Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun
Name
Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun
Location
Pompeii
Culture
Republican Roman
Date
c. 100 BCE
Material
Mosaic
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Romans wanted to honor Alexander the Great due to his military might and his patronage of Greek culture (which the Romans admired)
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This showcases the Battle of Issus (333 BCE) between Alexander & Darius III (Persia's Achaemenid Empire) → Alexander won, and Darius is in shock of is defeat
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There is a lot of motion and drama to exaggerate Alexander's military might
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Alexander in on the left (on a horse)
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Darius III is in a small yellow bubble just to the right of the horse that's in the center
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His hand is extended in shock after one of his guards was hit by an arrow
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Darius's troops are on the right, and they're hurriedly leaving after losing the battle
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All 4 hooves of the black horse (right side) are off the ground → Emphasizes the drama of the victory
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Kept in House of Faun, one of the nicest mansions in Pompeii → Shows how much the Romans admired Alexander
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Romans admired and borrowed a lot from Greek culture, and they supported Alexander because he spread Greek culture throughout Eurasia (in the Hellenistic Greek Era)
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Image 32: Head of a Roman Patrician
Name
Head of a Roman Patrician
Culture
Republican Roman
Date
c. 75 - 50 BCE
Material
Marble
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Reinforces the idea of paterfamilias (male family head), the idea where male aristocrats have lots of power within their families and communities
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In Roman society, the eldest male (paterfamilias) had the supreme power within his family and his community
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Uses a style called verism (truthfulness) to showcase a truthful face of an old man → Emphasizes the wisdom of the paterfamilias
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No dynamism or emotion
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Deep wrinkles, strong cheekbone, furrowed brow, sagging skin → All are characteristics of an aging man → Represent a wise, respectable, and noble family head
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Could be a death mask of a paterfamilias → His family would use this to showcase the power of their family
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Imperial Roman Art
ira
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Since Augustus became the 1st emperor of Rome in 27 BCE, Romans needed to use imperial military strength rather than an elected council to maintain their rule → They commissioned artworks to showcase their strength
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Imperial Roman art depicts Romans (& their emperors) as stronger, superior, & wealthier than others, discouraging other peoples in the empire from challenging Roman rule → Roman empire can maintain stability
Image 43: Augustus of Prima Porta
Name
Augustus of Prima Porta
Culture
Imperial Roman
Date
Early first century CE
Material
Marble
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Meant to honor Augustus's reign and show that he is the divinely ordained ruler of the Roman Empire
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Augustus Caesar was the first emperor of Rome, and this depicts him as a strong political and military leader
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Sculpted in contrapposto with natural depiction of the human body (large muscles, bones, etc.) → Shows his honor and power
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Has youthful idealization → Shows that he has youthful vigor
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It has a lot of imagery of Gods (mostly on his breastplate) that appear much smaller than him → Show that Augustus is superior to them and is the divinely ordained ruler of the Roman Empire
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On his right leg is Cupid (the son of Venus) → Hints that Augustus can trace his family lineage back to Venus and is crowned by her
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Goddess Roma symbolizes his power over Rome
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A photo of a Parthian symbolizes Rome's victory over the Parthians
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Goddess Tellus symbolizes prosperity
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Personification of the sky and the moon symbolizes that Augustus has power all the time: during the night (moon) and the day (sky)
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Image 44: Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater)
Name
Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater)
Location
Rome
Culture
Imperial Roman
Date
c. 70 - 80 CE
Material
Stone and concrete
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Meant for gladiator combats, and symbolizes the power & brutality of the Roman empire
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Two gladiators would fight each other, and the one who lost would often be killed
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Sometimes prisoners and Christian martyrs were executed in the Colosseum
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The structure of the Colosseum indicates social characteristics of the Roman Empire
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The structure of the seating indicates a social hierarchy
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There are 4 levels of seating, and the high-ranked people sit at the bottom level (closer to the stage), while the lower class people sit at the top level (furthest from the stage)
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The emperor had a direct tunnel from his palace to the colosseum → Symbolizes his supreme power
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Other structural details give insights about the Roman government's motives
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The columns between the arches along the outside walls are copied from Greek traditions → Shows that Roman empire admired Greek culture
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Had a big roof (called the Velarium), and it could be removed by pulling on some ropes attached to it → Shows the technological skill of Roman engineers
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Built on Emperor Nero's artificial lake → Shows that the Roman Empire wanted to give back to its people by building a useful stadium on the site of a useless lake
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Image 45: Forum of Trajan
Name
Forum of Trajan
Location
Rome
Artist
Apollodorus of Damascus
Date
Forum & Markets: 106 - 112 CE
Column: 113 CE
Material
Forum & Markets: Brick and Concrete
Column: Marble
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Forum is an open space (like a park), giving Romans a different experience from their cramped narrow streets
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Has a huge square, a big basilica (Basilica Ulpia), 2 libraries, a column, and a marketplace
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The area initially was too small, so Trajan told Apollodorus of Damascus to cut into the nearby hill to make space
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The basilica is huge, with a raised floor, big columns, and bronze roof tiles
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Starting with Julius Caesar, Roman emperors wanted to build their own forums to emphasize their power
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The marketplace had a general hall (Great Market Hall) with over 150 rooms for offices and shops → Promoted commerce
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The Great Market Hall was built like a Gothic cathedral, with groin vaults and buttresses
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The grandness of the forum showcases Emperor Trajan's power
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Meant to honor the power of Trajan and commemorate his military victory over Dacia (Romania)
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The Forum Square had statues of Trajan, other Roman generals, and captured Dacian prisoners → Glorifies Trajan
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Column of Trajan honored Trajan's military victory over Dacia
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The base has eagles on all 4 corners symbolizing Nike (Goddess of victory), framing a plaque that says that the column was made by the people of Rome → Shows that Trajan has a lot of support and honor
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If you read the column from bottom to top, it depicts a story of the Roman army's victory over Dacia
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At the bottom is a scene of Roman soldiers using a temporary pontoon bridge (made by Apollodorus) to cross the Danube into Romania
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At the top is Dacian king Decebalus committing suicide
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Top had a heroic sculpture of Trajan (now replaced with St. Peter)
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Image 46: Pantheon
Name
Pantheon
Culture
Imperial Roman
Date
118 - 125 CE
Material
Concrete with stone facing
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Has a large dome & open circular space → Gives us a sense of freedom and heaven
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Sunlight comes in through the circular opening at the top → As the sun moves throughout the day, its shadow moves inside the Pantheon, representing the movement of the heavens
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The dome's design is not aligned with the interior design below it → Signifies that the dome is moving/rotating (even though it doesn't rotate), giving a sense of the heavenly sphere
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The dome even contained statues of gods and deified emperors → Glorifies those emperors in a divine way because the dome represents heaven
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Contains lots of marble → Showcases Emperor Hadrian's wealth
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Looking at all this marble and richness in the Pantheon also gives us a sense of heaven and sublimity
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The dome was very influential in Renaissance and modern domes, such as Brunelleschi's dome in the Florence Cathedral
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Image 47: Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus
Name
Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus
Culture
Late Imperial Roman
Date
c. 250 CE
Material
Marble
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Depicts a battle between the Romans and Barbarians (Goths) and shows the Romans as more heroic
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Romans are piled on top of the Goths → Goths have lost the freedom to move, implying that the Romans are more powerful than them
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Romans are depicted in a smoother texture than the Goths (especially the Goths' hair has rougher texture) → Shows that the Romans are superior to the Goths
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The shields and swords are used to frame and highlight certain individuals as more heroic, usually prominent Roman generals
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At the center of the work (with his horse) is a prominent Roman general, and his arm stretched to his right shows that he's heroic
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Could be meant to mark the grave of a rich Roman, possibly the hero at the center of the work
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